Editing Conversion therapy (section)

==History==
{{main|History of conversion therapy}}

=== Sexual orientation change efforts (SOCE) ===
The term ''[[homosexual]]'' was coined by German-speaking Hungarian writer [[Karl Maria Kertbeny]] and was in circulation by the 1880s.{{sfn|Whisnant|2016|p=20}}<ref name=Drescher>{{cite journal |last1=Drescher |first1=Jack |last2=Schwartz |first2=Alan |last3=Casoy |first3=Flávio |last4=McIntosh |first4=Christopher A. |last5=Hurley |first5=Brian |last6=Ashley |first6=Kenneth |last7=Barber |first7=Mary |last8=Goldenberg |first8=David |last9=Herbert |first9=Sarah E. |last10=Lothwell |first10=Lorraine E. |last11=Mattson |first11=Marlin R. |last12=McAfee |first12=Scot G. |last13=Pula |first13=Jack |last14=Rosario |first14=Vernon |last15=Tompkins |first15=D. Andrew |title=The Growing Regulation of Conversion Therapy |journal=Journal of Medical Regulation |date=2016 |volume=102 |issue=2 |pages=7–12 |doi=10.30770/2572-1852-102.2.7 |pmid=27754500 |pmc=5040471 }}</ref> Into the middle of the twentieth century, competing views of homosexuality were advanced by [[psychoanalysis]] versus academic [[sexology]]. [[Sigmund Freud]], the founder of psychoanalysis, viewed homosexuality as a form of [[arrested development]]. Later psychoanalysts followed [[Sandor Rado]], who argued that homosexuality was a "phobic avoidance of heterosexuality caused by inadequate early parenting".<ref name=Drescher/> This line of thinking was popular in psychiatric models of homosexuality based on the prison population or homosexuals seeking treatment. In contrast, sexology researchers such as [[Alfred Kinsey]] argued that homosexuality was a normal variation in human development. In 1970, gay activists confronted the [[American Psychiatric Association]], persuading the association to reconsider whether homosexuality should be listed as a disorder. The APA delisted homosexuality in 1973, which contributed to shifts in public opinion on homosexuality.<ref name=Drescher/>

Despite their lack of scientific backing, some [[social conservative|socially]] or [[religious conservatism|religiously conservative]] activists continued to argue that if one person's sexuality could be changed, homosexuality was not a fixed class such as [[Race (human categorization)|race]]. Borrowing from discredited psychoanalytic ideas about the cause of homosexuality, some of these individuals offered conversion therapy.<ref name=Drescher/> In 2001, conversion therapy attracted attention when [[Robert L. Spitzer]] published a non-[[peer-reviewed]] study asserting that some homosexuals could change their sexual orientation. Many researchers made [[methodological]] criticisms of the study, and Spitzer later repudiated his own study.<ref name=Drescher/>

=== Gender identity change efforts (GICE) ===
Gender Identity Change Efforts (GICE) refer to practices of healthcare providers and religious counselors with the goal of attempting to alter a person's gender identity or expression to conform to social norms. Examples include [[aversion therapy]], [[cognitive restructuring]], and [[psychoanalytic therapy|psychoanalytic]] and talk therapies.{{sfn|Rivera|Pardo|2022|p=52}} Western medical-model narratives have historically institutionalized [[transphobia]]: systemically favoring a binary gender model and pathologizing gender diversity and non-conformity.{{sfn|Rivera|Pardo|2022|p=53}}  This aided the development and proliferation of GICE.{{sfn|Rivera|Pardo|2022|p=56}} 

Early [[social engineering (political science)|interventions]] were rooted in psychoanalytic hypotheses.{{sfn|Rivera|Pardo|2022|p=58}} [[Robert Stoller]] advanced the theory that [[gender variance|gender-nonconforming]] behavior and expression in children assigned male at birth (AMAB) was caused by being overly close to their mother. [[Richard Green (sexologist)|Richard Green]] continued his research; his methods for altering behavior included having the father spend more time with the child and mother less, expecting both to exhibit stereotypical [[gender roles]], and having them praise their child's masculine behaviors, and shame their feminine and gender-nonconforming ones. These interventions resulted in depression in the children and feelings of betrayal from parents that the treatments failed.{{sfn|Rivera|Pardo|2022|p=58}}

In the 1970s, [[UCLA]] psychologist Richard Green recruited [[Ole Ivar Lovaas]] to adapt the techniques of [[Applied Behavior Analysis]] (ABA) therapy to attempt to prevent children from becoming [[transsexual]].<ref name="silberman_2016_319">{{Cite book |last1=Silberman |first1=Steve |title=Neurotribes: The Legacy of Autism and the Future of Neurodiversity |date=2016 |publisher=Avery |location=New York City, NY |pages=319–321 |isbn=978-0399185618}}</ref> Deemed the "Feminine Boy Project", the treatments used [[operant conditioning]] to reward gender-conforming behaviors, and punish gender non-conforming behaviors.<ref name="silberman_2016_319"/>

{{Anchor|Living in your own skin model}}
[[Kenneth Zucker]] at the [[Centre for Addiction and Mental Health]] adopted Richard Green's methods, but narrowed the scope to attempting to prevent the child from identifying as transgender by modifying gender behavior and presentation to conform to the expectations of the assigned gender at birth, which he dubbed the "living in your own skin" model. His model used the same interventions as Green with the addition of [[psychodynamic therapy]].{{sfn|Rivera|Pardo|2022|p=58}}<ref name="forcier_2020_177">{{Cite book |last1=Chung |first1=Kathleen |last2=Rhoads |first2=Sarah |last3=Rolin |first3=Alicia |last4=Sackett-Taylor |first4=Andrew C. |last5=Forcier |first5=Michelle |editor-last1=Forcier |editor-first1=Michelle |editor-last2=Van Schalkwyk |editor-first2=Gerrit |editor-last3=Turban |editor-first3=Jack L. |date=2020 |title=Pediatric Gender Identity: Gender-affirming Care for Transgender & Gender Diverse Youth |publisher=Springer |chapter=Treatment Paradigms for Prepubertal Children |page=177 |isbn=978-3030389086}}</ref><ref name="Hart">{{Cite book |title=Banning 'conversion therapy': legal and policy perspectives |publisher=Hart |year=2023 |isbn=978-1-5099-6117-7 |editor-last=Trispiotis |editor-first=Ilias |location=Oxford London New York New Delhi Sydney |pages=134 |editor-last2=Purshouse |editor-first2=Craig}}</ref><ref name="ashley_2022_4">{{Cite book |last1=Ashley |first1=Florence |title=Banning Transgender Conversion Practices: A Legal and Policy Analysis |date=2022 |publisher=University of British Columbia Press |isbn=978-0774866958 |location=Vancouver, BC |pages=4–6}}</ref>