Editing Constantine the Great (section)

== Early life ==
[[File:Медијана 02.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Remains of the luxurious residence palace of [[Mediana]], erected by Constantine I near his birth town of Naissus (now [[Niš]], Serbia)]]
Constantine was born on 27 February 272.{{sfn|Doležal|2022|pp=221-237}} While his official birthday is recorded in sources, his year of birth is not, and scholars have given several estimates between 271 and 280, with most leaning for 272 or 273. However, the evidence points to 272 being the correct year.{{sfn|Doležal|2022|pp=221-237}}{{efn|Constantine's age at the time of his death was 65 years and 3 months, as recorded by [[Eustathius of Epiphania|Eustathius]]. [[Socrates Scholasticus|Socrates]], [[Sozomen]], [[Joannes Zonaras|Zonaras]], [[Theodore Skoutariotes|Skoutariotes]], [[Theophanes the Confessor|Theophanes]], [[Symeon Logothete|Symeon]] and [[George Kedrenos|Kedrenos]] all record 65 years. [[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]] and [[Jerome]] ({{Circa}} 380) give 66 years, as Latin writers often used [[inclusive counting]]. [[Aurelius Victor]] gives 62, likely a corruption of {{Smallcaps|lxvi}} into {{Smallcaps|lxii}}, and his [[Epitome de Caesaribus|epitomer]] further corrupts the number into 63 ({{Smallcaps|lxiii}}), while also computing his regnal years wrong.{{sfn|Doležal|2022|pp=221-237}}{{sfn|Bernard|2019|p=543}}}} He was born inside the city of Naissus, during a time where the unity of the Empire was threatened by the breakaway wars of the [[Palmyrene Empire]]. The city (modern [[Niš]], Serbia) was located in [[Dardania (Roman province)|Dardania]] within the province of [[Moesia Superior]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes|1y=1981|1pp=3, 39–42|2a1=Elliott|2y=1996|2p=17|3a1=Odahl|3y=2001|3pp=15–16|4a1=Pohlsander|4y=2004b|5a1=Southern|5y=2001|5p=169, 341|6a1=Barnes|6y=1982|6pp=39–42|7a1=Jones|7y=1978|7pp=13–14|8a1=Lenski et al.|8p=59|9a1=Pohlsander|9y=2004a|9p=14|10a1=Rodgers|10y=1989|11a1=Wright|11y=1987}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Wilkes|first=John|editor-last1=Hornblower|editor-first1=Simon|editor-last2=Spawforth|editor-first2=Antony|editor-last3=Eidinow|editor-first3=Esther|dictionary=The Oxford Classical Dictionary|date=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-954556-8|entry-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVWcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA414|entry=Dardani|page=414}}</ref> His father was [[Constantius Chlorus|Flavius Constantius]],{{efn|The claim that Constantius descended from [[Claudius Gothicus]], and thus also from the [[Flavian dynasty]], is most certainly a fabrication.{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991|pp=524–525}}{{sfn|Jones|Martindale|Morris|p=223}} His family probably adopted the name "Flavius" after being granted citizenship by one of the Flavian emperors, as it was common for "new Romans" to adopt the names of their benefactors.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Salway | year=1994 | first=Benet | title=What's in a Name? A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from c. 700 B.C. to A.D. 700 | journal=[[Journal of Roman Studies]] | volume=84 | pages=124–145 |doi=10.2307/300873 |jstor=300873 |s2cid=162435434 |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/114213/1/SalwayJRS1994.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411100610/https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/114213/1/SalwayJRS1994.pdf | archive-date=11 April 2020 | url-status=live | author-link=Benet Salway | issn=0075-4358 }}</ref>}} an Illyrian.{{sfn|Odahl|2001|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=770uCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA40 40–41]}}<ref name=Doležal/>{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991|pp=524–525}}{{efn|name=Barnes2011p30}} His original full name, as well as that of his father, is not known.<ref name=":1">{{Cite Pauly|IV,1|1013|1026|Constantius 1|[[Otto Seeck]]|RE:Constantius 1}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite Pauly|IV,1|1013|1026|Constantinus 2|Conrad Benjamin|RE:Constantinus 2}}</ref> His ''[[praenomen]]'' is variously given as [[Lucius (praenomen)|Lucius]], [[Marcus (praenomen)|Marcus]] and [[Gaius (praenomen)|Gaius]].<ref name=":2" />{{efn|Constantius' regnal name is attested as both "Gaius Flavius Constantius" and "Marcus Flavius Constantius". However, the latter is almost certainly the correct form, as it was also the ''praenomen'' of his adopted father Maximian.{{sfn|Barnes|1982|p=5}}}} Whatever the case, ''praenomina'' had already disappeared from most public records by this time.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=Steven |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YHeOAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |title=The Means Of Naming: A Social History |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2003 |isbn=9781135368364 |pages=47}}</ref> He also adopted the name "Valerius", the ''[[Nomen gentilicium|nomen]]'' of emperor [[Diocletian]], following his father's ascension as [[Caesar (title)|caesar]].<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" />

Constantine probably spent little time with his father{{sfn|MacMullen|1969|p=21}} who was an officer in the Roman army, part of Emperor [[Aurelian]]'s imperial bodyguard. Being described as a tolerant and politically skilled man,<ref>''Panegyrici Latini'' 8(5), 9(4); Lactantius, ''De Mortibus Persecutorum'' 8.7; Eusebius, ''Vita Constantini'' 1.13.3</ref>{{sfn|Barnes|1981|pp=13, 290}} Constantius advanced through the ranks, earning the [[Roman governor|governorship]] of [[Dalmatia (Roman province)|Dalmatia]] from Emperor Diocletian, another of Aurelian's companions from [[Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum|Illyricum]], in 284 or 285.{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes|1y=1981|1p=3|2a1=Lenski et al.|2pp=59–60|3a1=Odahl|3y=2001|3pp=16–17}} Constantine's mother was [[Helena, mother of Constantine I|Helena]], a woman of low social standing, possibly from Drepanum (later renamed [[Helenopolis (Bithynia)|Helenopolis]]) of [[Bithynia]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Drijvers |first=Jan Willem |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AeV5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA9 |title=Helena Augusta|date=1991 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-24676-8 |pages=9–17 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Stanton |first=Andrea L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GtCL2OYsH6wC&pg=PA25 |title=Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia |date=2012 |publisher=SAGE |isbn=978-1-4129-8176-7 |pages=25 |language=en |quote="Constantine's mother, Helena, was a Greek from Asia Minor and also a devoted Christian who seemed to have influenced his choices."}}</ref> It is uncertain whether she was legally married to Constantius or merely his [[Concubinatus|concubine]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes|1y=1981|1pp=3, 39–42|2a1=Barnes|2y=1982|2p=39–40|3a1=Elliott|3y=1996|3p=17|4a1=Lenski et al.|4pp=59, 83|5a1=Odahl|5y=2001|5p=16|6a1=Pohlsander|6y=2004a|6p=14}} Constantine's own language was [[Latin]], and during his public speeches in the church councils, which were held in Greek, he needed Greek translators.<ref name=columbia>{{cite book |last1=Tejirian |first1=Eleanor H. |last2=Simon |first2=Reeva Spector |title=Conflict, conquest, and conversion: two thousand years of Christian missions in the Middle East |date=2012 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-231-51109-4 |page=15 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bHwMD0-X7aYC}}</ref>

{{multiple image
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|image1=Istanbul - Museo archeol. - Diocleziano (284-305 d.C.) - Foto G. Dall'Orto 28-5-2006 (cropped).jpg
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|caption1=Head from a statue of the emperor [[Diocletian]]
|image2=MSR - Tête de l'empreur Maximien Hercule - Inv 34 b (cropped).jpg
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|caption2=Bust of [[Maximian]], Diocletian's co-emperor
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In April 286 Diocletian declared [[Maximian]], another colleague from Illyricum, his co-emperor. Each emperor would have his own court, his own military and administrative faculties, and each would rule with a separate [[praetorian prefect]] as chief lieutenant.{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes|1y=1981|1pp=8–14|2a1=Lenski et al.|2pp=46–50|3a1=Treadgold|3y=1997|3pp=14–15}} Maximian ruled in the West, from his capitals at ''[[Mediolanum]]'' ([[Milan]], Italy) or ''Augusta Treverorum'' ([[Trier]], Germany), while Diocletian ruled in the East, from [[Nicomedia]] ([[İzmit]], Turkey). The division was merely pragmatic: the empire was called "indivisible" in official panegyric, and both emperors could move freely throughout the empire.{{sfnm|1a1=Bowman|1y=2005|1p=70|2a1=Potter|2y=2004|2p=283|3a1a=Williams|3y=1997|3pp=49, 65}} In 288, Maximian appointed Constantius to serve as his praetorian prefect in [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]]. Constantius left Helena to marry Maximian's stepdaughter [[Flavia Maximiana Theodora|Theodora]] in 288 or 289.{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes|1y=1981|1p=3|2a1=Elliott|2y=1996|2p=20|3a1=Lenski et al.|3pp=59–60|4a1=Odahl|4y=2001|4pp=47, 299|5a1=Pohlsander|5y=2004a|5p=14}}

Diocletian divided the empire again in 293, appointing two caesars to rule over further subdivisions of East and West. Each would be subordinate to his respective ''augustus'' but would act with supreme authority in his assigned lands. This system would later be called the Tetrarchy. Diocletian's first appointee for the office of Caesar was [[Constantius Chlorus|Constantius]]; his second was [[Galerius]], a native of [[Gamzigrad|''Felix Romuliana'']]. According to [[Lactantius]], Galerius was a brutal, animalistic man. Although he shared the paganism of Rome's aristocracy, he seemed to them an alien figure, a semi-barbarian.<ref>Lactantius, ''De Mortibus Persecutorum'' 7.1; cited in {{harvnb|Barnes|1981|pp=13, 290}}</ref> On 1 March, Constantius was promoted to the office of ''Caesar'', and dispatched to Gaul to fight the rebels [[Carausius]] and [[Allectus]]. In spite of [[Meritocracy|meritocratic]] overtones, the Tetrarchy retained vestiges of hereditary privilege, and Constantine became the prime candidate for future appointment as Caesar as soon as his father took the position. Constantine went to the court of Diocletian, where he lived as his father's [[heir presumptive]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes|1y=1981|1pp=3, 8–9|2a1=Lenski et al.|2pp= 40–43, 54|3a1=Elliott|3y=1996|3p=20|4a1=Odahl|4y=2001|4pp=46–47, 56–57|5a1=Pohlsander|5y=2004a|5pp=8–9, 14|6a1=Treadgold|6y=1997|6p=17}}

=== In the East ===
Constantine received a formal education at Diocletian's court, where he learned Latin literature, Greek, and philosophy.{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes|1y=1981|1p=73–74|2a1=Lenski et al.|2pp=60|3a1=Odahl|3y=2001|3pp=72, 301}} The cultural environment in Nicomedia was open, fluid, and socially mobile; in it, Constantine could mix with intellectuals both pagan and Christian. He may have attended the lectures of Lactantius, a Christian scholar of Latin in the city.{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes|1y=1981|1p=73–74|2a1=Fowden|2y=1988|2pp=175–76}} Because Diocletian did not completely trust Constantius—none of the Tetrarchs fully trusted their colleagues—Constantine was held as something of a hostage, a tool to ensure Constantius' best behavior. Constantine was nonetheless a prominent member of the court: he fought for Diocletian and Galerius in Asia and served in a variety of [[tribune|tribunates]]; he campaigned against barbarians on the [[Danube]] in 296 and fought the Persians under Diocletian in Syria in 297, as well as under Galerius in [[Mesopotamia]] in 298–299.<ref>Constantine, ''Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum'', 16.2</ref>{{sfnm|1a1=Elliott|1y=1996|1pp=29–30|2a1=Lenski et al.|2p=60|3a1=Odahl|3y=2001|3pp=72–74}} By late 305, according to some, he had become a tribune of the first order, a ''tribunus ordinis primi''.{{sfnm|1a1=Elliott|1y=1996|1pp=29–30|2a1=Lenski et al.|2p=60|3a1=Odahl|3y=2001|3pp=72–74}}{{sfn|Pohlsander|2004a|p=15}}

[[File:Romuliana Galerius head.jpg|thumb|left|[[Porphyry (geology)|Porphyry]] bust of Emperor Galerius]]
Constantine had returned to Nicomedia from the eastern front by the spring of 303, in time to witness the beginnings of Diocletian's "[[Diocletianic Persecution|Great Persecution]]", the most severe [[Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire|persecution of Christians]] in Roman history.<ref>Constantine, ''Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum'' 25</ref>{{sfnm|1a1=Elliott|1y=1996|1p=30|2a1=Odahl|2y=2001|2p=73}} In late 302, Diocletian and Galerius sent a messenger to the [[oracle]] of [[Apollo]] at [[Didyma]] with an inquiry about Christians.<ref>Lactantius, ''De Mortibus Persecutorum'' 10.6–11</ref>{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes|1y=1981|1p=21|2a1=Elliott|2y=1996|2pp=35–36|3a1=MacMullen|3y=1969|3p=24|4a1=Odahl|4y=2001|4p=67|5a1=Potter|5y=2004|5p=338}} Constantine could recall his presence at the palace when the messenger returned and Diocletian accepted the imperial court's demands for universal persecution.<ref>Eusebius, ''Vita Constantini'' 2.49–52</ref>{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes|1y=1981|1p=21|2a1=Odahl|2y=2001|2pp=67, 73, 304|3a1=Potter|3y=2004|3p=338}} On 23 February 303, Diocletian ordered the destruction of Nicomedia s new church, condemned its scriptures to the flames, and had its treasures seized. In the months that followed, churches and scriptures were destroyed, Christians were deprived of official ranks, and priests were imprisoned.{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes|1y=1981|1pp=22–25|2a1=MacMullen|2y=1969|2pp=24–30|3a1=Odahl|3y=2001|3pp=67–69|4a1=Potter|4y=2004|4p=337}} It is unlikely that Constantine played any role in the persecution.{{sfn|MacMullen|1969|pp=24–25}} In his later writings, he attempted to present himself as an opponent of Diocletian's "sanguinary edicts" against the "Worshippers of God",<ref>''Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum'' 25</ref>{{sfn|Odahl|2001|p=73}} but nothing indicates that he opposed it effectively at the time. Although no contemporary Christian challenged Constantine for his inaction during the persecutions, it remained a political liability throughout his life.{{sfnm|1a1=Elliott|1y=1987|1pp=425–26|2a1=Lenski et al.|2p=126}}

On 1 May 305 Diocletian, as a result of a debilitating sickness taken in the winter of 304–305, announced his resignation. In a parallel ceremony in [[Milan]], Maximian did the same.{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes |1y=1981 |1pp=25–27 |2a1=Lenski et al. |2p=60 |3a1=Odahl |3y=2001 |3pp=69–72 |4a1=Pohlsander |4y=2004a |4p=15 |5a1=Potter |5y=2004 |5pp=341–342}} Lactantius states that Galerius manipulated the weakened Diocletian into resigning and forced him to accept Galerius' allies in the imperial succession. According to Lactantius, the crowd listening to Diocletian's resignation speech believed, until the last moment, that Diocletian would choose Constantine and Maxentius (Maximian's son) as his successors.<ref>Lactantius, ''De Mortibus Persecutorum'' 19.2–6</ref>{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes |1y=1981 |1p=26 |2a1=Potter |2y=2004 |2p=342}} It was not to be: Constantius and Galerius were promoted to ''augusti'', while [[Severus II|Severus]] and [[Maximinus Daza|Maximinus]], Galerius' nephew, were appointed their caesars respectively. Constantine and Maxentius were ignored.{{sfnm|1a1=Lenski et al. |1pp=60–61 |2a1=Odahl |2y=2001 |2pp=72–74 |3a1=Pohlsander |3y=2004a |3p=15}}

Some of the ancient sources detail plots that Galerius made on Constantine's life in the months following Diocletian's abdication. They assert that Galerius assigned Constantine to lead an advance unit in a cavalry charge through a swamp on the middle Danube, made him enter into single combat with a lion, and attempted to kill him in hunts and wars. Constantine always emerged victorious: the lion emerged from the contest in a poorer condition than Constantine; Constantine returned to Nicomedia from the Danube with a Sarmatian captive to drop at Galerius' feet.<ref>''Origo'' 4; Lactantius, ''De Mortibus Persecutorum'' 24.3–9; Praxagoras fr. 1.2; Aurelius Victor 40.2–3; ''Epitome de Caesaribus'' 41.2; Zosimus 2.8.3; Eusebius, ''Vita Constantini'' 1.21</ref>{{sfnm|1a1=Lenski et al. |1p=61 |2a1=MacMullen |2y=1969 |2p=32 |3a1=Odahl |3y=2001 |3p=73 }} It is uncertain how much these tales can be trusted.{{sfn|Lenski et al.|p=61}}

=== In the West ===
Constantine recognised the implicit danger in remaining at Galerius' court, where he was held as a virtual hostage. His career depended on being rescued by his father in the West. Constantius was quick to intervene. In the late spring or early summer of 305, Constantius requested leave for his son to help him campaign in Britain. After a long evening of drinking, Galerius granted the request. Constantine's later propaganda describes how he fled the court in the night, before Galerius could change his mind. He rode from [[Cursus publicus|post-house]] to post-house at high speed, [[hamstringing]] every horse in his wake. By the time Galerius awoke the following morning, Constantine had fled too far to be caught. Constantine joined his father in [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]], at ''Bononia'' ([[Boulogne-sur-Mer|Boulogne]]) before the summer of 305.{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes |1y=1981 |1p=27 |2a1=Elliott |2y=1987 |2pp=39–40 |3a1=Lenski et al.|3p=61 |4a1=Odahl |4y=2001 |4p=75–77|5a1=Pohlsander |5y=2004a |5pp=15–16|6a1=Potter |6y=2004 |6pp=344–45 |7a1=Southern |7y=2001 |7pp=169–70, 341 |8a1=MacMullen |8y=1969 |8p=32}}

[[File:Statue Constantin 1er York 13.jpg|thumb|[[Statue of Constantine the Great, York|Modern bronze statue of Constantine I in York]], England, near the spot where he was proclaimed [[Augustus (title)|Augustus]] in 306]]
From Bononia they crossed the [[English Channel]] to Britain and made their way to Eboracum ([[York]]), capital of the province of [[Britannia Secunda]] and home to a large military base. Constantine was able to spend a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the [[Picts]] beyond [[Hadrian's Wall]] in the summer and autumn.{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes |1y=1981 |1pp=27, 298 |2a1=Elliott |2y=1996 |2p=39 |3a1=Odahl |3y=2001 |3p=77–78, 309 |4a1=Pohlsander |4y=2004a |4pp=15–16}} Constantius' campaign, like that of [[Septimius Severus]] before it, probably advanced far into the north without achieving great success.{{sfnm|1a1=Alföldi|1y=1948|1pp=233–34|2a1=Southern|2y=2001|2pp=170, 341}} Constantius had become severely sick over the course of his reign and died on 25 July 306 in Eboracum. Before dying, he declared his support for raising Constantine as emperor. The [[Alamanni]]c king [[Chrocus]], a barbarian taken into service under Constantius, then proclaimed Constantine as augustus. The troops loyal to Constantius' memory followed him in acclamation. Gaul and Britain quickly accepted his rule;{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes |1y=1981 |1pp=27–29 |2a1=Jones |2y=1978 |2p=59 |3a1=Lenski et al. |3pp=61–62 |4a1=Odahl |4y=2001 |4pp=78–80}} [[Hispania]], which had been in his father's domain for less than a year, rejected it.{{sfn|Jones|1978|p=59}}

Constantine sent Galerius an official notice of Constantius' death and his own acclamation. Along with the notice, he included a portrait of himself in the robes of an Augustus.{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes |1y=1981 |1pp=27–29 |2a1=Jones |2y=1978 |2p=59 |3a1=Lenski et al. |3pp=61–62 |4a1=Odahl |4y=2001 |4pp=78–80}} The portrait was wreathed in [[Laurus nobilis|bay]].{{sfnm|1a1=Jones|1y=1978|1p=59|2a1=MacMullen |2y=1969 |2p=39}} He requested recognition as heir to his father's throne and passed off responsibility for his unlawful ascension on his army, claiming they had "forced it upon him".{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=28}} Galerius was put into a fury by the message; he almost set the portrait and messenger on fire.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gibbon, Edward |title=History of The Decline and Fall of The Roman Empire. |date=2018 |publisher=[Otbebookpublishing] |isbn=978-3-96272-518-1 |oclc=1059411020}}</ref> His advisers calmed him and argued that outright denial of Constantine's claims would mean certain war.{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes |1y=1981 |1pp=28–29 |2a1=Rees |2y=2002 |2p=160 |3a1=Lenski et al. |3p=62 |4a1=Odahl |4y=2001 |4pp=78–80}} Galerius was compelled to compromise: he granted Constantine the title "caesar" rather than "augustus" (the latter office went to Severus instead). Wishing to make it clear that he alone gave Constantine legitimacy, Galerius personally sent Constantine the emperor's traditional [[Tyrian purple|purple robes]]. Constantine accepted the decision, knowing that it would remove doubts as to his legitimacy.{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes |1y=1981 |1p=29 |2a1=Elliott |2y=1996 |2p=41 |3a1=Jones |3y=1978 |3p=41 |4a1=MacMullen |4y=1969 |4p=39 |5a1=Odahl |5y=2001 |5pp=79–80}}