Editing Conrad Gessner (section)

==Work==

Conrad Gessner was a Renaissance [[polymath]], a physician, philosopher, [[encyclopaedist]], [[bibliographer]], [[philologist]], [[natural historian]] and illustrator.{{sfn|Pyle|2000}} In 1537, at the age of 21, his publication of a Graecolatin dictionary led to his sponsors obtained for him the professorship of Greek at [[University of Lausanne|the newly founded academy]] of [[Lausanne]] (then belonging to [[Bern]]). Here he had leisure to devote himself to scientific studies, especially botany,{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} and earn money to further his medical studies.

After three years of teaching at Lausanne, Gessner was able to travel to the medical school at the [[University of Montpellier]], where he received his doctoral degree (1541) from Basel. He then returned to Zürich to practice medicine, which he continued to do for the rest of his life.  There he was also appointed to the post of lecturer of Aristotelean physics at the [[Carolinum, Zürich|''Carolinum'']], the precursor of the [[University of Zürich]].

After 1554 he became the [[city physician]] ({{Lang|de|Stadtarzt}}). In addition to his duties there, and apart from a few journeys to foreign countries, and annual summer botanical journeys in his native land, and illnesses, he was able to devote himself to research and writing. His expeditions frequently involved visits to mountainous country, below the [[snow-line]]. Although primarily for purposes of botanical collection, he also extolled mountain climbing for the sake of exercise and enjoyment of the beauties of nature. In 1541 he prefixed to his treatise on milk and milk products, ''Libellus de lacte et operibus lactariis''{{sfn|Gessner|1541a}} a letter addressed to his friend Jacob Avienus (Vogel){{sfn|Gessner|1937}}{{efn|Provincial governor and a leader of Swiss protestants{{sfn|Wellisch|1975}}}} of [[Glarus]] on the wonders to be found among the mountains, declaring his love for them, and his firm resolve to climb at least one mountain every year, not only to collect flowers, but in order to exercise his body. In 1555 he issued his narrative ''Descriptio Montis Fracti sive Montis Pilati''{{sfn|Gessner|1555}} of his excursion to the [[Gnepfstein]] (1920&nbsp;m), the lowest point in the [[Mount Pilatus|Pilatus chain]].{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}{{sfn|Pettitt|2014}}

Gessner is credited with a number of the first descriptions of species in Europe, both animals such as the [[brown rat]] (''Rattus norvegicus''), [[guinea pig]] (''Cavia porcellus''){{sfn|Freye|Thenius|1977}} and [[turkey (bird)|turkey]] (''Meleagris''),{{sfn|North|2015}} as well as plants such as the tulip (''[[Tulipa gesneriana]]''). He first saw a tulip in April 1559, growing in the garden of the magistrate Johann Heinrich Herwart at [[Augsburg]], and called it ''Tulipa turcarum'', the Turkish tulip.{{sfn|Grout|2017}}<ref name=gessnertulip/> He is also credited with being the first person to describe [[brown adipose tissue]], in 1551,{{sfn|Cannon|Nedergaard|2008}} in 1565 the first to document the pencil,{{sfn|Parrott-Sheffer|2008}} and in 1563 among the first Europeans to write about the effects of tobacco.<ref name="ley196512">{{Cite magazine
 |last=Ley
 |first=Willy
 |date=December 1965
 |title=The Healthfull Aromatick Herbe
 |department=For Your Information
 |magazine=Galaxy Science Fiction
 |pages=88–98
 }}</ref>

=== Publications ===
[[File:Conrad Gesner - Conradi Gesneri Historia plantarum Walderbeere.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''[[Fragaria vesca]]'' (wild strawberry), from Gessner's'' [[Historia Plantarum (Gessner)|Historia plantarum]]''|alt=Drawing of wild strawberry in Historia platarum]]
Gessner's first work was a Latin-Greek Dictionary, the ''Lexicon Graeco-Latinum'' (1537),{{sfn|Gessner|1541}} compiled during his studies in Basel. This was a revision of an original work by the Italian cleric, Varinus Phavorinus or Guarino of Favera (d. 1537), ''Magnum ac perutile dictionarium'' (1523).{{sfn|Fischer|1966}}{{sfn|Wellisch|1975}} Over his lifetime he was able to produce some 70 publications on many different subjects.

His next major work was his unique ''[[Bibliotheca universalis|Bibliotheca]]'' (1545),{{sfn|Gessner|1545}} a landmark in the history of bibliography, in which he set out to catalogue all the writers who had ever lived and their works.{{sfn|Wellisch|1975}} In addition to his monumental work on animal life, the {{Lang|la|[[Historiae animalium]]}} (1551–1558),{{sfn|Gessner|1551–1558}} he amassed a very large collection of notes and [[wood engravings]] of plants, but only published two botanical works in his lifetime,  ''Historia plantarum et vires'' (1541){{sfn|Gessner|1541b}} and the ''Catalogus plantarum'' (1542){{sfn|Gessner|1542}} in four languages. It was in the last decade of his life that he began to compile his major botanical work, ''[[Historia Plantarum (Gessner)|Historia plantarum]]''. Although he died prior to its completion, his work was utilised by many other authors over the next two centuries, but was finally published in 1754.{{sfn|Gessner|1754}}{{sfn|Pettitt|2014}}

Not content with scientific works, Gessner was also active as a [[linguist]] and bibliographer, putting forth in 1555 his book entitled ''Mithridates. De differentiis linguarum [...]<!-- tum veterum tum quae hodie apud diversas nationes in toto orbe terrarum in usu sunt -->'',{{sfn|Gesnerus|1555a}} an account of about 130 known languages, with the ''[[Lord's Prayer]]'' in twenty-two languages.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} He also produced edited works of a number of classical authors (''see [[#Edited works|Edited works]]''), including [[Claudius Aelianus]] (1556){{sfn|Gessner|1556}} and [[Marcus Aurelius]] (1559).{{sfn|Gessner|1559}}{{sfn|Pettitt|2014}}

A number of other works appeared after his death ([[posthumous book|posthumously]]), some long after (''see [[#Posthumous works|Posthumous works]]''). His work on insects was edited by various authors, including [[Thomas Penny]], until [[Thomas Muffet]] brought it to publication as ''Insectorum sive minimorum animalium theatrum'' (1634),{{sfn|Muffet|1634}} finally appearing in English translation as ''The Theatre of Insects'' in [[Edward Topsell]]'s ''History of Four-Footed Beasts and Serpents'' (1658).{{sfn|Topsell|1658}}{{sfn|Jessop|2002}}{{sfn|Modernity|2017}}{{sfn|GDZ|2017}}

==== ''Bibliotheca universalis'' (1545–1549)====
{{main|Bibliotheca universalis}}
In 1545, after four years of research, Gessner published his remarkable ''[[Bibliotheca universalis]]'',{{sfn|Gessner|1545}} an exhaustive catalogue of all known works in Latin, Greek and Hebrew, of all writers who had ever lived, with the titles of their works, and brief annotations.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} The work, which included his own bio-bibliography, listed some three thousand authors alphabetically, and was the first modern bibliography published since the invention of printing. Through it, Gessner became known as the "father of bibliography." In all, about twelve thousand titles were included.

A second part, a thematic index to the work, ''Pandectarum sive partitionum universalium libri xxi'',{{sfn|Gessner|1548}} appeared in 1548. Although the title indicated that twenty one parts were intended, only nineteen books were included. Part 20, intended to include his medical work, was never finished and part 21, a theological encyclopaedia, was published separately in 1549.

==== ''Historia animalium'' (1551–1558) ====
{{main|Historia animalium (Gessner)|l1=Historia animalium}}
[[File:Conrad Gesner - Porcupine 33.jpg|thumb|[[Porcupine]], {{Lang|la|[[Historiae animalium]]}}, 1551|alt=Drawing of a porcupine in Historia amimalium]]
Gessner's great [[zoology|zoological]] work, {{Lang|la|[[Historiae animalium (Gesner)|Historia animalium]]}},{{sfn|Gessner|1551–1558}} is a 4,500-page encyclopedia of animals that appeared in Zürich in 4 volumes between 1551 and 1558: [[quadruped]]s, amphibians, birds, and fishes. A fifth folio on snakes was issued in 1587. A German translation of the first 4 volumes titled ''Thierbůch'' was published in Zürich in 1563. This book was considered to be the first modern zoological work. It built a bridge between ancient, medieval and modern science.

In {{Lang|la|Historia animalium}} Gessner combines data from old sources, such as the Old Testament, Aristotle, Pliny, folklore, and medieval bestiaries, adding his own observations. He created a new, comprehensive description of the Animal Kingdom. This was the first attempt by anyone to describe many animals accurately. The book unlike many works of its time was illustrated with hand-colored woodcuts drawn from personal observations by Gessner and his colleagues.{{sfn|TTP|2015}}

Even though he sought to distinguish observed facts from myths and popular errors and was known for his accurate depiction of many animals in {{Lang|la|Historia animalium}}, he also included many fictional animals such as the Unicorn and the Basilisk, which he had only heard about from medieval bestiaries. But when Gessner doubted the accuracy of the opinions he relayed in his own writings, or the validity of the illustrations he included, he clearly said so. Besides any plant or animal's potential advantage to people, Gessner was interested in learning about them because of the moral lessons they could teach and the divine truths they might tell. He went into as much detail about some unreal animals as he did about real ones.{{sfn|Scott|2017}} Later in 1556 he also combined real and fictional creatures in his edition of the works of [[Claudius Aelianus]].

{{Lang|la|Historia animalium}} includes sketches for many well-known animals, and some fictional ones, including unicorns and mermaids. He accomplished many of his works in a large part due to the web of acquaintances he established with leading naturalists throughout Europe, who included [[John Caius]], English court physician to the [[Tudors]] and second founder of [[Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge]]. Not only did they send him their ideas, but also sent him plants, animals and gems. He returned the favor – and kept helpful specimens coming – by naming plants after correspondents and friends.{{sfn|Scott|2017}}

==== ''Historia plantarum'' (unfinished) ====
{{main|Historia Plantarum (Gessner)|l1=Historia plantarum}}
Over his lifetime, Gessner amassed a considerable collection of plants and seeds and made extensive notes and [[wood engravings]]. In the last decade of his life he began to compile his major botanical work, ''Historia plantarum''. although he died prior to its publication his materials were utilised by many subsequent authors for the next two hundred years. These included some 1,500 engravings of plants and their important flowers and seeds, most of which were original. The scale and scientific rigour of these were unusual for the time, and Gessner was a skilled artist, producing detailed drawings of specific plant parts that illustrated their characteristics, with extensive marginal notation discussing their growth form and habitation.{{sfn|Schulze|2006|loc=|p=38}} Finally, the work was published in 1754.{{sfn|Gessner|1754}}{{sfn|Pettitt|2014}}

==== Censorship ====
There was extreme religious tension at the time that {{Lang|la|Historia animalium}} came out. Under [[Pope Paul IV]] the [[Pauline Index]] felt that the religious convictions of an author contaminated all his writings.<ref name=DAmico46/> Since Gessner was a Protestant his works were included in this index of prohibited books. Even though religious tensions were high, Gessner maintained friendships on both sides of the Catholic-Protestant divide. In fact, Catholic booksellers in Venice protested the Inquisition's blanket ban on Gessner's books, and some of his work was eventually allowed after it had been "cleaned" of its doctrinal errors.{{sfn|Scott|2017}}

====List of selected publications====
:&nbsp;''see {{harvtxt|Wellisch|1975}}, {{harvtxt|BHL|2017}}''
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{anchor|Lexicon}}{{cite book|last=Gessner|first=Conrad|author-link=Conrad Gessner|title=Lexicon Graeco-Latinum, ex Phavorini Camertis Lexico|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QVFLAAAAcAAJ|year=1541|orig-year=1537|publisher=Walder|location=Basel}}{{efn|group=note|''Lexicon Graeco-Latinum'': Commissioned by Basel printer Johannes Walder (d. 1542), who omitted Gessner's name. Reprinted 1541, followed by several later editions and revisions{{sfn|Wellisch|1975}}}}
* {{cite book|last=Gessner|first=Conrad|author-link=Conrad Gessner|title=Libellus de lacte et operibus lactariis|date=1541a|author-mask=1}}{{efn|group=note|''Libellus de lacte'': For prefatory letter to Jacob Avienus in translation, ''On the admiration of mountains'', see [[#Works in translation|Works in translation]]{{sfn|Gessner|1937}}}}
* {{cite book|last=Gessner|first=Conrad|author-link=Conrad Gessner|title=Historiae plantarum et vires|date=1541b|author-mask=1 }}{{efn|group=note|''Historiae plantarum et vires'': An index of plant names from texts on medical topics, by authors from [[Dioscorides]] to [[Pliny the Elder]]{{sfn|Wellisch|1975}}}}
* {{cite book|last=Gessner|first=Conrad|author-link=Conrad Gessner|title=Catalogus plantarum Latinè, Graecè, Germanicè, & Gallicè|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GFEbRQAACAAJ|date=1542|publisher=Apud Christoph. Froschoverum|location=Zurich|author-mask=1}}{{efn|group=note|''Catalogus plantarum'': Alphabetical catalogue of plant names in four languages{{sfn|Wellisch|1975}}}}
* {{cite book|last=Gessner|first=Conrad|author-link=Conrad Gessner|title=Bibliotheca Universalis, sive Catalogus omnium Scriptoum locupletissimus, in tribus linguis, Latina, Græca, & Hebraica; extantium & non-extantium, veterum et recentiorum in hunc usque diem ... publicatorum et in Bibliothecis latentium, etc|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRIcMwEACAAJ|year=1545|publisher=Christophorum Froschouerum|location=Zurich|author-mask=1}}, ''see also'' ''[[Bibliotheca universalis]]''
* {{cite book|last=Gessner|first=Conrad|author-link=Conrad Gessner|title=Pandectarum sive Partitionum ... libri XXI|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SG9MAAAAcAAJ|year=1548|publisher=Christophorus Froschoverus|location=Zurich|author-mask=1
}}, see also ''[[Bibliotheca universalis]]''
** {{cite book|last=Gessner|first=Conrad|author-link=Conrad Gessner|title=Partitiones theologicae|date=1549|author-mask=1}}
** {{cite book|last=Gessner|first=Conrad|author-link=Conrad Gessner|title=Appendix bibliothecae|date=1555|author-mask=1|ref=none}}
* {{cite book|last=Gessner|first=Conrad|author-link=Conrad Gessner|title=[[Historiae animalium (Gesner)|Historiae animalium]]|date=1551–1558|author-mask=1}}
** 1551 ''Quadrupedes vivipares''
** 1554 ''Quadrupedes ovipares''
** 1555 ''Avium natura''
** 1558 ''Piscium & aquatilium animantium natura''
* {{cite book|last=Gessner|first=Conrad|author-link=Conrad Gessner|title=Thesaurus Euonymi Philiatri|date=1552|author-mask=1}}
* {{cite book|last=Gessner|first=Conrad|author-link=Conrad Gessner|title=Corpus Venetum de Balneis|date=1553|author-mask=1}}
* {{cite book|last=Gessner|first=Conrad|author-link=Conrad Gessner|title=Descriptio Montis Fracti sive Montis Pilati ut vulgo nominant iuxta Lucernam in Helvetia per Conradum Gesnerum|date=1555|author-mask=1}}{{efn|group=note|''Descriptio Montis Fracti sive Montis Pilati'': For English translation ''A Description of the Riven Mountain, Commonly Called Mount Pilatus'', see [[#Works in translation|Works in translation]]{{sfn|Gessner|1937}}}}
* {{cite book|first=Conradus|last=Gesnerus|author-link=Conrad Gessner|title=Mithridates. De differentiis linguarum [...]<!-- tum veterum tum quae hodie apud diversas nationes in toto orbe terrarum in usu sunt -->|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=quptK49j-8UC|year=1555a|publisher=Froschoverus|author-mask=1}}
* {{cite book|last1=Gessner|first1=Conrad|title=In hoc volumine continentur ....De hortus Germaniae|date=1561|publisher=Iosias Rihelius|location=[[Argentorati]] |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/8036#/summary|author-mask=1}}
* {{cite book|first1=Cůnrat|last1=Geßner|first2=Cůnrat|last2=Forer|title=Thierbůch Das ist ein kurtze bschreybung<!-- so und nicht 'beschreybung' --> aller vierfüssigen Thieren [...]|date=1563}}

;{{vanchor|Posthumous works}}
* ''Schatz Euonymi'', 1582/1583
** ''Der erste Theil, deß köstlichen unnd theuren Schatzes Euonymi Philiatri [...] Erstlich in Latein beschrieben durch Euonymum Philiatrum, und neuwlich verteutscht durch Joannem Rudolphum Landenberger zu Zürych'', 1582 [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xj5mc7EENa0C Band 1]
** ''Ander Theil des Schatzs Euonymi [...] Erstlich zusammen getragen, durch Herren Doctor Cunrat Geßner, Demnach von Caspar Wolffen der Artzneyen Doctor in Zürich in Latin beschriben und in Truck gefertiget, jetzund aber newlich von Johan. Jacobo Nüscheler Doctorn, in Teütsche Sprach vertolmetschet.'', 1583 [https://books.google.com/books?id=sY08AAAAcAAJ Band 2] [http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hbz:061:2-9710 Band 2]
* {{cite book|first1=Cůnradt|last1=Gäßner|first2=Cůnradt|last2=Forer|title=Fischbůch Das ist ein kurtze, doch vollkommne beschreybung aller Fischen [...]|date=1575|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Peb5STPK2Q0C}}
* {{cite book|first1=Cůnrat|last1=Geßner|first2=Cůnrat|last2=Forer|title=Thierbůch Das ist ein kurtze beschreybung aller vier füssigen Thieren [...]|date=1583|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wXpkcMxCn3IC}}
* {{cite book|first1=Conrat|last1=Geßner|first2=Jacobus|last2=Carronus|title=Schlangenbůch. Das ist ein grundtliche und vollkommne Beschreybung aller Schlagen [...]|date=1589}}
* {{cite book|first1=Conrad|last1=Geßner|first2=Rudolff|last2=Heußlich|title=Vogelbuch oder ausführliche beschreibung und lebendige ja auch eygentliche Controfactur und Abmahlung aller und jeder Vögel [...]<!-- Erstlich durch den hochgelehrten Herrn Doctorn Conrad Geßnern in Latein beschrieben, nachmals aber durch Rudolff Heußlich in hoch Teutsch versetzt, jetzt an vielen orten castigirt und verbessert -->|date=1600|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Tp0b0tP_zsC}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Muffet|editor-first=Thomas|editor-link=Thomas Muffet|last1=Wotton|first1=Edward|author-link1=Edward Wotton (zoologist)|last2=Gesner|first2=Conrad|author-link2=Conrad Gessner|last3=Penny|first3=Thomas|author-link3=Thomas Penny|title=Insectorvm Sive Minimorum Animalivm Theatrvm|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/60501#/summary|date=1634|publisher =Cotes|location=London|ref={{harvid|Muffet|1634}}}}
* {{cite book|last1=Gessner|first1=Conrad|author-link=Conrad Gessner|editor-last1=Schmidel|editor-first1=Casimir Christoph|editor-last2=Trew|editor-first2=Christoph Jacob |title=Conradi Gesneri philosophi et medici celeberrimi Opera botanica, per duo saecula desiderata, vitam avctoris et operis historiam Cordi librvm qvintvm cvm adnotationibvs Gesneri in totvm opvs vt et Wolphii fragmentvm historiae plantarvm Gesnerianae adivnctis, indicibvs iconvm tam olim editarvm qvam nvnc prodevntivm cvm figvris vltra CCCC. minoris formae, partim ligno excisis partim aeri inscvlptis complectentia, qvae ex bibliotheca D. Christophori Iacobi Trew ... nvnc primvm in lvcem edidit et praefatvs est D. Casimirvs Christophorvs Schmiedel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lHAry2qu740C|year=1754|orig-year=1555–1565|publisher=Impensis Io. Mich. Seligmanni, typis Io. Iosephi Fleischmanni|location=[[Nuremberg]]}}
;{{vanchor|Edited works}}
* {{cite book|last1=Aelianus|first1=Claudius|author-link=Claudius Aelianus|editor-last=Gessner|editor-first=Conrad|editor-link=Conrad Gessner|title=Aeliani Claudii opera quae extant omnia: graece latinaque ... : his acc. ind. alphabeticus copiosus|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DqVCAAAAcAAJ|year=1565|orig-year=1556 Claudii Aeliani praenestini pontificis et sophistae|publisher=Gesneri|location=Zurich|ref={{harvid|Gessner|1556}}}}{{efn|group=note|''Claudii Aeliani praenestini pontificis'': Considered to be the first critical edition ([[editio princeps]]) of the works of this author }}
* {{cite book|last=Aurelius|first=Marcus|author-link=Marcus Aurelius|editor1-last=Gessner|editor1-first=Conrad|editor-link=Conrad Gessner|title=M. Antonini philosophia de seipso seu vita sua libri XII et Marini Neapolitani liber de Procli vita et felicitate|url=https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/en/view/bsb10169588?page=1|date=1559|location=[[Tiguri]]|publisher=F. Gesnerum|ref={{harvid|Gessner|1559}}}}{{efn|group=note|''M. Antonini philosophia de seipso seu vita'': Gessner used a Greek manuscript, the ''Codex Palatinus'', of Marcus Aurelius' [[Meditations]], accompanied by a Latin translation by [[Wilhelm Holtzman]]. Since the Codex was later destroyed by fire, Gessner's version became the ''editio princeps''{{sfn|Wellisch|1975}}}}
;{{vanchor|Works in translation}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Dock|editor-first=W.|last=Gessner|first=Conrad|author-link=Conrad Gessner|others=trans. Henry Douglas Bacon Soulé |title=Conrad Gesner. On the Admiration of Mountains, the Prefatory Letter Addressed to Jacob Avienus, Physician, in Gesner's Pamphlet "On Milk and Substances Prepared from Milk", first Printed at Zürich in 1543. A Description of the Riven Mountain, Commonly Called Mount Pilatus, Addressed to J. Chrysostome Huber, Originally Printed with Another Work of Gesner's at Zürich in 1555. Together With: On Conrad Gesner and The Mountaineering of Theuerdank, by J. Monroe Thorington. Bibliographical Notes by W. Dock and J.M. Thorington. With illustrations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-UsMwEACAAJ|year=1937|publisher=Grabhorn Press|location=San Francisco}}
{{refend}}