Editing Cleopatra (section)

==Background==
[[File:Ptolemy XII Auletes Louvre Ma3449.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|[[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic]] portrait of [[Ptolemy XII Auletes]], the father of Cleopatra, in the [[Louvre]], Paris{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=18}}]]

Ptolemaic [[pharaoh]]s were [[Coronation of the pharaoh|crowned]] by the Egyptian [[high priest of Ptah]] at [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]], but resided in the multicultural and largely [[Culture of Greece|Greek]] city of [[Alexandria]], established by [[Alexander the Great]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=32–33}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=1, 3, 11, 129}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=11}}<ref group="note">For a thorough explanation about the foundation of Alexandria by Alexander the Great and its largely [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic Greek]] nature during the [[Ptolemaic period]], along with a survey of the various ethnic groups residing there, see {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|pp=43–61}}.{{pb}}For further validation about the founding of Alexandria by Alexander the Great, see {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|p=6}}.{{pb}}For further validation of Ptolemaic rulers being crowned at Memphis, see {{harvtxt|Jeffreys|1999|p=488}}.</ref> They spoke Greek and governed Egypt as [[Hellenistic]] Greek monarchs, refusing to learn the [[Demotic Egyptian language|native Egyptian language]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=29–33}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=1, 5, 13–14, 88, 105–106}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=11–12}}<ref group="note" name="languages">The refusal of [[Ptolemaic rulers]] to speak the native language, [[Demotic Egyptian language|Demotic Egyptian]], is why [[Ancient Greek]] (i.e. [[Koine Greek]]) was used along with Late Egyptian on official court documents such as the [[Rosetta Stone]] ({{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00sbrz3 |title=Radio 4 Programmes – A History of the World in 100 Objects, Empire Builders (300 BC – 1 AD), Rosetta Stone |publisher=BBC |access-date=7 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100523105204/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00sbrz3 |archive-date=23 May 2010 |url-status=live }}).{{pb}}As explained by {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|pp=43–54}}, Ptolemaic Alexandria was considered a ''[[polis]]'' ([[city-state]]) separate from the country of Egypt, with citizenship reserved for [[Greeks]] and [[Ancient Macedonians]], but various other ethnic groups resided there, especially the Jews, as well as native Egyptians, Syrians, and [[Nubians]].{{pb}}For further validation, see {{harvtxt|Grant|1972|p=3}}.{{pb}}For the multiple languages spoken by Cleopatra, see {{harvtxt|Roller|2010|pp=46–48}} and {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|pp=11–12}}.{{pb}}For further validation about Ancient Greek being the official language of the Ptolemaic dynasty, see {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|p=3}}.</ref> In contrast, Cleopatra could speak multiple languages by adulthood and was the first Ptolemaic ruler known to have learned the Egyptian language.{{sfnp|Schiff|2011|p=35}}{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=46–48}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=11–12}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Grant|1972|pp=20, 256, footnote 42}}.</ref> Plutarch implies that she also spoke [[Meroitic language|Ethiopian]], the language of the "[[Troglodytae|Troglodytes]]", [[Biblical Hebrew|Hebrew]] (or [[Aramaic]]), [[Old Arabic|Arabic]], the "Syrian language" (perhaps [[Syriac language|Syriac]]), [[Median language|Median]], and [[Parthian language|Parthian]], and she could apparently also speak [[Latin]], although her Roman contemporaries would have preferred to speak with her in her native [[Koine Greek]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=46–48}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=11–12}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=5, 82, 88, 105–106}}<ref group="note">For the list of languages spoken by Cleopatra as mentioned by the ancient historian [[Plutarch]], see {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|pp=33–34}}, who also mentions that the rulers of [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] gradually abandoned the [[Ancient Macedonian language]]. For further information and validation see {{harvtxt|Schiff|2011|p=36}}.</ref> Aside from Greek, Egyptian, and Latin, these languages reflected Cleopatra's desire to restore [[History of North Africa|North African]] and [[History of the Middle East|West Asian]] territories that once belonged to the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=46–48, 100}}

Roman interventionism in Egypt predated the [[reign of Cleopatra]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=38–42}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xviii, 10}}{{sfnp|Grant|1972|pp=9–12}} When her grandfather [[Ptolemy IX Lathyros]] died in late 81 BC, he was succeeded by his daughter [[Berenice III]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=17}}{{sfnp|Grant|1972|pp=10–11}} With opposition building at the royal court against the idea of a sole reigning female monarch, Berenice III accepted joint rule and marriage with her cousin and stepson [[Ptolemy XI Alexander II]], an arrangement made by the Roman dictator [[Sulla]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=17}}{{sfnp|Grant|1972|pp=10–11}} Ptolemy XI had his wife killed shortly after their marriage in 80 BC, and was lynched soon after in the resulting riot over the assassination.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=17}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=xix}}{{sfnp|Grant|1972|p=11}} Ptolemy XI, and perhaps his uncle Ptolemy IX or father [[Ptolemy X Alexander I]], willed the Ptolemaic Kingdom to Rome as collateral for loans, giving the Romans legal grounds to take over Egypt, their [[client state]], after the assassination of Ptolemy XI.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=17}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=12}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=74}} The Romans chose instead to divide the Ptolemaic realm among the illegitimate sons of Ptolemy IX, bestowing [[History of Egypt|Egypt]] on [[Ptolemy XII Auletes]] and [[Ancient history of Cyprus|Cyprus]] on [[Ptolemy of Cyprus|another namesake son]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=17}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=xix}}