Editing Civics (section)

=== Ancient Sparta ===
==== Archidamus ====
In the ''[[History of the Peloponnesian War]]'', [[Thucydides]] quotes a speech by [[Archidamus II]] wherein he stressed the importance for [[Sparta]] of civic education for the Spartan virtues of toughness, obedience, cunning, simplicity, and preparedness:{{blockquote|And we are wise, because we are educated with too little learning to despise the laws, and with too severe a self-control to disobey them, and are brought up not to be too knowing in useless matters—such as the knowledge which can give a specious criticism of an enemy's plans in theory, but fails to assail them with equal success in practice—but are taught to consider that the schemes of our enemies are not dissimilar to our own, and that the freaks of chance are not determinable by calculation. In practice we always base our preparations against an enemy on the assumption that his plans are good; indeed, it is right to rest our hopes not on a belief in his blunders, but on the soundness of our provisions. Nor ought we to believe that there is much difference between man and man, but to think that the superiority lies with him who is reared in the severest school.<ref>[[Thucydides]]. [https://www.gutenberg.org/files/7142/7142-h/7142-h.htm#link2HCH0003 ''The History of the Peloponnesian War'', Book I, Chapter III]. Translated by [[Richard Crawley]]. [[Project Gutenberg]].</ref>}}
French essayist [[Michel de Montaigne]] commended how [[Agesilaus II]], the son of Archidamus, followed his father's approach closely:{{blockquote|One asking to this purpose, Agesilaus, what he thought most proper for boys to learn? "What they ought to do when they come to be men," said he.<ref>[[Michel de Montaigne]]. [https://www.gutenberg.org/files/3600/3600-h/3600-h.htm#link2HCH0024, Book I, Chapter 24]. One asking to this purpose, Agesilaus, what he thought most proper for boys to learn? "What they ought to do when they come to be men," said he.—[Plutarch, Apothegms of the Lacedamonians. Rousseau adopts the expression in his Diswuys sur tes Lettres.]—It is no wonder, if such an institution produced so admirable effects. Translated by [[Charles Cotton]]. [[Project Gutenberg]].</ref>}}

==== Simonides ====
[[Plutarch]] relates a comparison made by [[Simonides]] between Spartan education of citizens and horse husbandry:{{blockquote|Simonides called Sparta "the tamer of men," because by early strictness of education, they, more than any nation, trained the citizens to obedience to the laws, and made them tractable and patient of subjection, as horses that are broken in while colts.<ref>[[Plutarch]]. [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/674/674-h/674-h.htm ''Parallel Lives'']. Now the succession belonging to Agis by law, Agesilaus, who in all probability was to be but a private man, was educated according to the usual discipline of the country, hard and severe, and meant to teach young men to obey their superiors.  Whence it was that, men say, Simonides called Sparta "the tamer of men," because by early strictness of education, they, more than any nation, trained the citizens to obedience to the laws, and made them tractable and patient of subjection, as horses that are broken in while colts. The law did not impose this harsh rule on the heirs apparent of the kingdom.  But Agesilaus, whose good fortune it was to be born a younger brother, was consequently bred to all the arts of obedience, and so the better fitted for the government, when it fell to his share; hence it was that he proved the most popular-tempered of the Spartan kings, his early life having added to his natural kingly and commanding qualities the gentle and humane feelings of a citizen.Translated by [[John Dryden]] . Edited by [[Arthur Hugh Clough]]. [[Project Gutenberg]]</ref>}}

==== Lycurgus ====
According to the Roman historian [[Plutarch]], the semi-legendary [[Lycurgus of Sparta]] considered education of the citizenry to be his main priority as framer of the Spartan constitution.<ref>Plutarch. [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/674/674-h/674-h.htm#2H_4_0004 ''Parallel Lives'', ''Lycurgus'']. In order to the good education of their youth (which, as I said before, he thought the most important and noblest work of a lawgiver), he went so far back as to take into consideration their very conception and birth, by regulating their marriages.</ref> Plutarch observes that 'the whole course of [Spartan] education was one of continued exercise of a ready and perfect obedience'<ref>Plutarch. [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/674/674-h/674-h.htm#2H_4_0004 ''Parallel Lives'', ''Lycurgus'']. Lycurgus was of another mind; he would not have masters bought out of the market for his young Spartans, nor such as should sell their pains; nor was it lawful, indeed, for the father himself to breed up the children after his own fancy; but as soon as they were seven years old they were to be enrolled in certain companies and classes, where they all lived under the same order and discipline, doing their exercises and taking their play together.  Of these, he who showed the most conduct and courage was made captain; they had their eyes always upon him, obeyed his orders, and underwent patiently whatsoever punishment he inflicted; so that the whole course of their education was one continued exercise of a ready and perfect obedience.</ref> in which 'there scarcely was any time or place without someone present to put them in mind of their duty, and punish them if they had neglected it.'<ref>Plutarch. [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/674/674-h/674-h.htm#2H_4_0004 ''Parallel Lives'', ''Lycurgus'']. The old men, too, had an eye upon them, coming often to the grounds to hear and see them contend either in wit or strength with one another, and this as seriously and with as much concern as if they were their fathers, their tutors, or their magistrates; so that there scarcely was any time or place without someone present to put them in mind of their duty, and punish them if they had neglected it.</ref>

He also describes how the Spartans limited civic education so as to maintain social control over the young:{{blockquote|Reading and writing they gave them, just enough to serve their turn; their chief care was to make them good subjects, and to teach them to endure pain and conquer in battle.<ref>Plutarch. [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/674/674-h/674-h.htm#2H_4_0004 ''Parallel Lives'', ''Lycurgus''].</ref>}}

However, the youth were also required to express themselves forcefully and succinctly,<ref>Plutarch. [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/674/674-h/674-h.htm#2H_4_0004 ''Parallel Lives'', ''Lycurgus'']. "They taught them, also, to speak with a natural and graceful raillery, and to comprehend much matter of thought in few words.  For Lycurgus, who ordered, as we saw, that a great piece of money should be but of an inconsiderable value, on the contrary would allow no discourse to be current which did not contain in few words a great deal of useful and curious sense; children in Sparta, by a habit of long silence, came to give just and sententious answers; for, indeed, as loose and incontinent livers are seldom fathers of many children, so loose and incontinent talkers seldom originate many sensible words."</ref> as well to think and reflect on matters of civic virtue, including such questions as who is or is not a good citizen of Sparta.<ref>Plutarch. [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/674/674-h/674-h.htm#2H_4_0004 ''Parallel Lives'', ''Lycurgus''].The Iren, or under-master, used to stay a little with them after supper, and one of them he bade to sing a song, to another he put a question which required an advised and deliberate answer; for example, Who was the best man in the city?  What he thought of such an action of such a man?  They used them thus early to pass a right judgment upon persons and things, and to inform themselves of the abilities or defects of their countrymen.  If they had not an answer ready to the question Who was a good or who an ill-reputed citizen, they were looked upon as of a dull and careless disposition, and to have little or no sense of virtue and honor; besides this, they were to give a good reason for what they said, and in as few words and as comprehensive as might be; he that failed of this, or answered not to the purpose, had his thumb bit by his master.</ref> Montaigne would later praise this particular technique of education, admiring the way Spartan citizens spent their time learning to acquire virtues such as courage and temperance, to the exclusion of studying any other subject.<ref>[[Michel de Montaigne]]. [https://www.gutenberg.org/files/3600/3600-h/3600-h.htm#link2HCH0024, Book I, Chapter 24]. It is a thing worthy of very great consideration, that in that excellent, and, in truth, for its perfection, prodigious form of civil regimen set down by Lycurgus, though so solicitous of the education of children, as a thing of the greatest concern, and even in the very seat of the Muses, he should make so little mention of learning; as if that generous youth, disdaining all other subjection but that of virtue, ought to be supplied, instead of tutors to read to them arts and sciences, with such masters as should only instruct them in valour, prudence, and justice; an example that Plato has followed in his laws. The manner of their discipline was to propound to them questions in judgment upon men and their actions; and if they commended or condemned this or that person or fact, they were to give a reason for so doing; by which means they at once sharpened their understanding, and learned what was right. Translated by [[Charles Cotton]]. [[Project Gutenberg]].</ref> Spartan boys were also taught music and songs in praise of courage and in condemnation of cowardice.<ref>Plutarch. [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/674/674-h/674-h.htm#2H_4_0004 ''Parallel Lives'', ''Lycurgus'']. "Nor was their instruction in music and verse less carefully attended to than their habits of grace and good breeding in conversation. And their very songs had a life and spirit in them that inflamed and possessed men's minds with an enthusiasm and ardor for action; the style of them was plain and without affectation; the subject always serious and moral; most usually, it was in praise of such men as had died in defense of their country, or in derision of those that had been cowards; the former they declared happy and glorified; the life of the latter they described as most miserable and abject."</ref>

Essentially, the Spartan ideal of civic education was a process whereby the interest of the citizen becomes totally united with the interest of the polity, in a spirit of perfect patriotism: 'To conclude, Lycurgus bred up his citizens in such a way that they neither would nor could live by themselves; they were to make themselves one with the public good, and, clustering like bees around their commander, be by their zeal and public spirit carried all but out of themselves, and devoted wholly to their country.<ref>Plutarch. [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/674/674-h/674-h.htm#2H_4_0004 ''Parallel Lives'', ''Lycurgus'']. "To conclude, [[Lycurgus of Sparta|Lycurgus]] bred up his citizens in such a way that they neither would nor could live by themselves; they were to make themselves one with the public good, and, clustering like bees around their commander, be by their zeal and public spirit carried all but out of themselves, and devoted wholly to their country.  What their sentiments were will better appear by a few of their sayings.  Paedaretus, not being admitted into the list of the three hundred, returned home with a joyful face, well pleased to find that there were in Sparta three hundred better men than himself.  And Polycratidas, being sent with some others ambassador to the lieutenants of the king of Persia, being asked by them whether they came in a private or in a public character, answered, "In a public, if we succeed; if not, in a private character."'</ref>

Civic education for toughness and martial prowess was not only within the purview of Spartan men: Plutarch recounts how Lycurgus 'ordered the maidens to exercises themselves with wrestling, running, throwing the [[quoits|quoit]], and chasing the dart' with a view to creating healthy children for the state.<ref>Plutarch. [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/674/674-h/674-h.htm#2H_4_0004 ''Parallel Lives'', ''Lycurgus'']. "The truth is, he took in their case, also, all the care that was possible; he ordered the maidens to exercise themselves with wrestling, running, throwing the quoit, and casting the dart, to the end that the fruit they conceived might, in strong and healthy bodies, take firmer root and find better growth, and withal that they, with this greater vigor, might be the more able to undergo the pains of child bearing."</ref>