Editing Citizenship (section)

==Determining factors==
{{More citations needed section|date=November 2019}}
A person can be recognized as a citizen on a number of bases.
* Nationality. Nationality and citizenship are generally indissociable, citizenship being in most cases a consequence of nationality.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Koubi |first=Geneviève |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LIxYDwAAQBAJ |title=De la citoyenneté |date=1994-12-31 |publisher=FeniXX réédition numérique |isbn=978-2-402-10208-7 |language=fr}}</ref>
* Place of residence. In some countries, [[Non-citizen suffrage|non-citizens can vote]].<ref name=":1" /> In some countries [[Non-resident citizen voting|citizens residing outside of country of citizenship can vote]].<ref name="x226">{{cite journal | last1=Umpierrez de Reguero | first1=Sebastián | last2=Finn | first2=Victoria | title=Migrants' intention to vote in two countries, one country, or neither | journal=Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties | volume=34 | issue=3 | date=2 July 2024 | issn=1745-7289 | doi=10.1080/17457289.2023.2189727 | pages=466–489| hdl=1814/75483 | hdl-access=free }}</ref> 
* Citizenship by [[Honorary citizenship|honorary conferment]]. This type of citizenship is conferred to an individual as a sign of honour.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=keypoint |date=2022-09-14 |title=TYPES OF CITIZENSHIP — Civic Keypoint |url=https://keypoint.ng/types-of-citizenship-2/ |access-date=2023-05-06 |website=keypoint |language=en-US}}</ref>
* Excluded categories. In most countries, minors are not considered as full citizens. In the past, there have been exclusions on entitlement to citizenship on grounds such as skin color, ethnicity, sex, land ownership status, and free status (not being a [[slave]]). Most of these exclusions no longer apply in most places. Modern examples include some [[Gulf countries]] which rarely grant citizenship to non-Muslims, e.g. [[Qatar]] is known for granting citizenship to foreign athletes, but they all have to profess the [[Islamic]] faith in order to receive citizenship. The United States grants citizenship to those born as a result of reproductive technologies, and internationally adopted children born after February 27, 1983. Some exclusions still persist for internationally adopted children born before February 27, 1983, even though their parents meet citizenship criteria.

=== Responsibilities of a citizen ===
Every citizen has obligations that are required by law and some responsibilities that benefit the community. Obeying the laws of a country and paying taxes are some of the obligations required of citizens by law. Voting and community services form part of responsibilities of a citizen that benefits the community.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ROLES, RIGHTS & RESPONSIBILITIES OF CITIZENS |url=https://ympacademy.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Civics-EOC-Review-CATEGORY-2-ROLES-RIGHTS-AND-RESPONSIBILITIES-OF-CITIZENS.pdf |access-date=10 May 2023}}</ref>

The [[Constitution of Ghana]] (1992), Article 41, obligates citizens to promote the prestige and good name of Ghana and respect the symbols of Ghana. Examples of national symbols includes the Ghanaian flag, coat of arms, money, and state sword. These national symbols must be treated with respect and high esteem by citizens since they best represent Ghanaians.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 July 2021 |title=Know your duties as a citizen of Ghana |url=https://www.nccegh.org/news/know-your-duties-as-a-citizen-of-ghana |access-date=10 May 2023 |website=National Commission for Civic Education}}</ref>

Apart from responsibilities, citizens also have rights. Some of the rights are the right to pursue life, liberty and happiness, the right to worship, right to run for elected office and right to express oneself.

{{Main|History of citizenship}}

=== ''Polis'' ===
{{Main|Polis}}
Many thinkers such as [[Giorgio Agamben]] in his work extending the biopolitical framework of [[Michel Foucault|Foucault]]'s [[History of Sexuality]] in the book, ''Homo Sacer'',<ref>{{cite book |last1=Agamben |first1=G. |last2=Heller-Roazen |first2=D. |title=Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life |publisher=Stanford University Press |series=Meridian: Crossing Aesthetics |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8047-3218-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hM9euhxDMs8C |access-date=8 March 2023}}</ref> point to the concept of citizenship beginning in the early [[city-state]]s of [[ancient Greece]], although others see it as primarily a modern phenomenon dating back only a few hundred years and, for humanity, that the concept of citizenship arose with the first [[law]]s. ''Polis'' meant both the political assembly of the city-state as well as the entire society.{{sfn|Pocock|1998|p=32}} Citizenship concept has generally been identified as a western phenomenon.{{sfn|Zarrow|1997|p=4}} There is a general view that citizenship in ancient times was a simpler relation than modern forms of citizenship, although this view has come under scrutiny.<ref name="tws2Y17"/> The relation of citizenship has not been a fixed or static relation but constantly changed within each society, and that according to one view, citizenship might "really have worked" only at select periods during certain times, such as when the Athenian politician [[Solon]] made reforms in the early Athenian state.<ref name=tws2Y12>{{harvnb|Heater|2004|p={{page needed|date=July 2020}}}}</ref> Citizenship was also contingent on a variety of biopolitical assemblages, such as the bioethics of emerging Theo-Philosophical traditions. It was necessary to fit Aristotle's definition of the besouled (the animate) to obtain citizenship: neither the sacred olive tree nor spring would have any rights.

An essential part of the framework of Greco-Roman ethics is the figure of ''[[Homo Sacer]]'' or the bare life.

Historian [[Geoffrey Hosking]] in his 2005 ''Modern Scholar'' lecture course suggested that citizenship in [[ancient Greece]] arose from an appreciation for the importance of [[Political freedom|freedom]].<ref name=twsfjiui>{{Cite book |last = Hosking |first = Geoffrey |title = Epochs of European Civilization: Antiquity to Renaissance |publisher = The Modern Scholar via [[Recorded Books]] |series = Lecture 3: Ancient Greece |year = 2005 |location = United Kingdom |pages = 1, 2 (tracks) |isbn =978-1-4025-8360-5}}</ref> Hosking explained:
{{Blockquote|It can be argued that this growth of slavery was what made Greeks particularly conscious of the value of freedom. After all, any Greek farmer might fall into debt and therefore might become a slave, at almost any time ... When the Greeks fought together, they fought in order to avoid being enslaved by warfare, to avoid being defeated by those who might take them into slavery. And they also arranged their political institutions so as to remain free men.|Geoffrey Hosking, 2005<ref name=twsfjiui/>}}

[[File:Arte greca, pietra tombale di donna con la sua assistente, 100 ac. circa.JPG|thumb|right|Geoffrey Hosking suggests that fear of being enslaved was a central motivating force for the development of the Greek sense of citizenship. Sculpture: a Greek woman being served by a slave-child.]]
Slavery permitted slave-owners to have substantial free time and enabled participation in public life.<ref name=twsfjiui/> Polis citizenship was marked by exclusivity. Inequality of status was widespread; citizens (πολίτης ''politēs'' < πόλις 'city') had a higher status than non-citizens, such as women, slaves, and resident foreigners ([[metic]]s).<ref name=tws2Y16/>{{sfn|Pocock|1998|p=33}} The first form of citizenship was based on the way people lived in the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] times, in small-scale organic communities of the polis. The obligations of citizenship were deeply connected to one's everyday life in the polis. These small-scale organic communities were generally seen as a new development in world history, in contrast to the established ancient civilizations of [[Egypt]] or Persia, or the hunter-gatherer bands elsewhere. From the viewpoint of the ancient Greeks, a person's public life could not be separated from their private life, and Greeks did not distinguish between the two worlds according to the modern western conception. The obligations of citizenship were deeply connected with everyday life. To be truly human, one had to be an active citizen to the community, which [[Aristotle]] famously expressed: "To take no part in the running of the community's affairs is to be either a beast or a god!" This form of citizenship was based on the obligations of citizens towards the community, rather than rights given to the citizens of the community. This was not a problem because they all had a strong affinity with the polis; their own destiny and the destiny of the community were strongly linked. Also, citizens of the polis saw obligations to the community as an opportunity to be virtuous, it was a source of honor and respect. In Athens, citizens were both rulers and ruled, important political and judicial offices were rotated and all citizens had the right to speak and vote in the political assembly.

===Roman ideas===
{{Main article|Roman citizenship}}
In the [[Roman Empire]], citizenship expanded from small-scale communities to the entirety of the empire. Romans realized that granting citizenship to people from all over the empire legitimized Roman rule over conquered areas. Roman citizenship was no longer a status of political agency, as it had been reduced to a judicial safeguard and the expression of rule and law.<ref>See [[Civis Romanus sum]].</ref> Rome carried forth Greek ideas of citizenship such as the principles of [[equality under the law]], civic participation in government, and notions that "no one citizen should have too much power for too long",<ref name=twsffujfk>{{Cite book
  | last = Hosking
  | first = Geoffrey
  | title = Epochs of European Civilization: Antiquity to Renaissance
  | publisher = The Modern Scholar via Recorded Books
  | series = Lecture 5: Rome as a city-state
  | year = 2005
  | location = United Kingdom
  | pages = tracks 1 through 9
  | isbn =978-1-4025-8360-5}}</ref> but Rome offered relatively generous terms to its captives, including chances for lesser forms of citizenship.<ref name=twsffujfk/> If Greek citizenship was an "emancipation from the world of things",{{sfn|Pocock|1998|p=35}} the Roman sense increasingly reflected the fact that citizens could act upon material things as well as other citizens, in the sense of buying or selling property, possessions, titles, goods. One historian explained:

{{Blockquote|The person was defined and represented through his actions upon things; in the course of time, the term property came to mean, first, the defining characteristic of a human or other being; second, the relation which a person had with a thing; and third, the thing defined as the possession of some person.|[[J. G. A. Pocock]], 1998{{sfn|Pocock|1998|p=36}}}}

Roman citizenship reflected a struggle between the upper-class [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patrician]] interests against the lower-order working groups known as the [[plebs|plebeian]] class.<ref name=twsffujfk/> A citizen came to be understood as a person "free to act by law, free to ask and expect the law's protection, a citizen of such and such a legal community, of such and such a legal standing in that community".{{sfn|Pocock|1998|p=37}} Citizenship meant having rights to have possessions, immunities, expectations, which were "available in many kinds and degrees, available or unavailable to many kinds of person for many kinds of reason".{{sfn|Pocock|1998|p=37}} The law itself was a kind of bond uniting people.{{sfn|Pocock|1998|p=38}} Roman citizenship was more impersonal, universal, multiform, having different degrees and applications.{{sfn|Pocock|1998|p=38}}

===Middle Ages===
During the European [[Middle Ages]], citizenship was usually associated with cities and towns (see [[medieval commune]]), and applied mainly to middle-class folk. Titles such as [[Burgher (title)|burgher]], [[grand burgher]] (German ''Großbürger'') and the [[bourgeoisie]] denoted political affiliation and identity in relation to a particular locality, as well as membership in a mercantile or trading class; thus, individuals of respectable means and socioeconomic status were interchangeable with citizens.

During this era, members of the [[nobility]] had a range of [[Privilege (legal ethics)|privilege]]s above [[commoner]]s (see [[aristocracy]]), though political upheavals and reforms, beginning most prominently with the [[French Revolution]], abolished privileges and created an egalitarian concept of citizenship.

===Renaissance===
 <!-- linked from redirect [[Subject (monarchy)]] -->
{{anchor|Subject}}During the [[Renaissance]], people transitioned from being subjects of a king or queen to being citizens of a city and later to a nation.<ref name=tws2Y14/>{{rp|p.161}} Each city had its own law, courts, and independent administration.{{sfn|Weber|1998|p=44}} And being a citizen often meant being subject to the city's law in addition to having power in some instances to help choose officials.{{sfn|Weber|1998|p=44}} City dwellers who had fought alongside nobles in battles to defend their cities were no longer content with having a subordinate social status but demanded a greater role in the form of citizenship.{{sfn|Weber|1998|p=46}} Membership in [[guild]]s was an indirect form of citizenship in that it helped their members succeed financially.{{sfn|Weber|1998|pp=46-47}} The rise of citizenship was linked to the rise of [[republicanism]], according to one account, since independent citizens meant that kings had less power.{{Sfn|Zarrow|1997|p=3}} Citizenship became an idealized, almost abstract, concept,<ref name=tws2Y12/> and did not signify a submissive relation with a lord or count, but rather indicated the bond between a person and the state in the rather abstract sense of having [[rights]] and duties.<ref name=tws2Y12/>

===Modern times===
The modern idea of citizenship still respects the idea of political participation, but it is usually done through elaborate systems of political representation at a distance such as [[representative democracy]].<ref name=tws2Y17/> Modern citizenship is much more passive; action is delegated to others; citizenship is often a constraint on acting, not an impetus to act.<ref name=tws2Y17/> Nevertheless, citizens are usually aware of their obligations to authorities and are aware that these bonds often limit what they can do.<ref name=tws2Y17/>

====United States====
{{Main|Citizenship of the United States}}
[[File: Oil on Canvas Portrait of Dred Scott (cropped).jpg|thumb|Portrait of Dred Scott, the plaintiff in the infamous ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]'' case at the Supreme Court of the United States, commissioned by a "group of Negro citizens" and presented to the Missouri Historical Society, St. Louis, in 1888]]
From 1790 until the mid-twentieth century, [[Law of the United States|United States law]] used racial criteria to establish citizenship rights and regulate who was eligible to become a naturalized citizen.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1997-jul-04-mn-9708-story.html|title=A History of U.S. Citizenship|date=July 4, 1997|website=The Los Angeles Times|access-date=21 September 2016}}</ref> [[Naturalization Act of 1790|The Naturalization Act of 1790]], the first law in U.S. history to establish rules for citizenship and naturalization, barred citizenship to all people who were not of European descent, stating that "any alien being a free white person, who shall have resided within the limits and under the jurisdiction of the [[United States]] for the term of two years, maybe admitted to becoming a citizen thereof."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://rs6.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=001/llsl001.db&recNum=226|title=A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774 - 1875|publisher=The Library of Congress|access-date=21 September 2016}}</ref>

Under early U.S. laws, African Americans were not eligible for citizenship. In 1857, these laws were upheld in the [[Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] case ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]'', which ruled that "a free negro of the African race, whose ancestors were brought to this country and sold as slaves, is not a 'citizen' within the meaning of the Constitution of the United States," and that "the special rights and immunities guaranteed to citizens do not apply to them."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/60/393#writing-USSC_CR_0060_0393_ZO|title=Scott v. Sandford|date=1857|website=Legal Information Institute|publisher=Cornell University Law School|access-date=21 September 2016}}</ref>

It was not until the abolition of slavery following the [[American Civil War]] that African Americans were granted citizenship rights. [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|The 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution]], ratified on July 9, 1868, stated that "all persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_amendments_11-27.html|title=Constitution of the United States: Amendment XIV|date=1868|website=The Charters of Freedom|publisher=U.S. National Archives and Records Administration|access-date=21 September 2016}}</ref> Two years later, the [[Naturalization Act of 1870]] would extend the right to become a naturalized citizen to include "aliens of African nativity and to persons of African descent".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Naturalization_Act_of_1870|title=Naturalization Act of 1870|website=Wikisource|publisher=U.S. Congress}}</ref>

Despite the gains made by African Americans after the Civil War, [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]], [[Asian Americans|Asians]], and others not considered "free white persons" were still denied the ability to become citizens. The 1882 [[Chinese Exclusion Act]] explicitly denied naturalization rights to all people of Chinese origin, while subsequent acts passed by the US Congress, such as laws in [[Naturalization Act of 1906|1906]], [[Immigration Act of 1917|1917]], and [[Immigration Act of 1924|1924]], would include clauses that denied immigration and naturalization rights to people based on broadly defined racial categories.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://library.uwb.edu/static/USimmigration/1917_immigration_act.html|title=1917 Immigration Act|website=US Immigration Legislation Online|publisher=University of Washington-Bothell Library}}</ref> Supreme Court cases such as ''[[Ozawa v. the United States]]'' (1922) and ''[[United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind|U.S. v. Bhagat Singh Thind]]'' (1923), would later clarify the meaning of the phrase "free white persons," ruling that ethnically Japanese, Indian, and other non-European people were not "white persons", and were therefore ineligible for naturalization under U.S. law.

Native Americans were not granted full US citizenship until the passage of the [[Indian Citizenship Act]] in 1924. However, even well into the 1960s, some state laws prevented Native Americans from exercising their full rights as citizens, such as the right to vote. In 1962, [[New Mexico]] became the last state to enfranchise Native Americans.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/elections/voters9.html|title=Elections: Native Americans|website=Library of Congress}}</ref>

It was not until the passage of the [[Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952]] that the racial and gender restrictions for naturalization were explicitly abolished. However, the act still contained restrictions regarding who was eligible for US citizenship and retained a national quota system which limited the number of visas given to immigrants based on their national origin, to be fixed "at a rate of one-sixth of one percent of each nationality's population in the United States in 1920".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/immigration-act|title=The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 (The McCarran-Walter Act)|website=The Office of the Historian|publisher=U.S. Department of State}}</ref> It was not until the passage of the [[Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965]] that these immigration quota systems were drastically altered in favor of a less discriminatory system.

====Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics====
{{Main|Soviet nationality law}}
The [[Soviet Russia Constitution of 1918|1918 constitution of revolutionary Russia]] granted citizenship to any foreigners who were living within the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic]], so long as they were "engaged in work and [belonged] to the working class."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.marxists.org/history/ussr/government/constitution/1918/article2.htm|title=Article 2 (R.S.F.S.R. Constitution)|website=www.marxists.org|accessdate=Mar 5, 2023}}</ref> It recognized "the equal rights of all citizens, irrespective of their racial or national connections" and declared oppression of any minority group or race "to be contrary to the fundamental laws of the Republic." The 1918 constitution also established the right to vote and be elected to [[Soviet (council)|soviets]] for both men and women "irrespective of religion, nationality, domicile, etc. [...] who shall have completed their eighteenth year by the day of the election."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.marxists.org/history/ussr/government/constitution/1918/article4.htm|title=Article 4 (R.S.F.S.R. Constitution)|website=www.marxists.org|accessdate=Mar 5, 2023}}</ref> The later constitutions of the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] would grant universal Soviet citizenship to the citizens of all [[Republics of the Soviet Union|member republics]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/russian/const/36cons01.html|title=1936 Constitution of the USSR, Part I|website=www.departments.bucknell.edu|accessdate=Mar 5, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/russian/const/77cons02.html#chap06|title=1936 Constitution of the USSR, Part I|website=www.departments.bucknell.edu|accessdate=Mar 5, 2023}}</ref> in concord with the principles of non-discrimination laid out in the original 1918 constitution of Russia.

====Nazi Germany====

[[Nazism]], the German variant of twentieth-century fascism, classified inhabitants of the country into three main hierarchical categories, each of which would have different rights in relation to the state: citizens, subjects, and aliens. The first category, citizens, were to possess full civic rights and responsibilities. Citizenship was conferred only on males of [[Germans|German]] (or so-called "[[Aryan]]") heritage who had completed military service, and could be revoked at any time by the state. The [[Reich Citizenship Law]] of 1935 established [[Racial policy of Nazi Germany|racial criteria for citizenship in the German Reich]], and because of this law Jews and others who could not "prove German racial heritage" were stripped of their citizenship.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/nurmlaw3.html|title=The Nuremberg Laws: The Reich Citizenship Law (September 15, 1935)|website=Jewish Virtual Library}}</ref>

The second category, subjects, referred to all others who were born within the nation's boundaries who did not fit the racial criteria for citizenship. Subjects would have no voting rights, could not hold any position within the state, and possessed none of the other rights and civic responsibilities conferred on citizens. All women were to be conferred "subject" status upon birth, and could only obtain "citizen" status if they worked independently or if they married a German citizen (see [[women in Nazi Germany]]).

The final category, aliens, referred to those who were citizens of another state, who also had no rights.

In 2021, the German government passed a law that entitled victims of Nazi persecution and their descendants to become naturalised German citizens.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Amt |first=Auswärtiges |title=Restoration of German citizenship (Article 116 II Basic Law) |url=https://uk.diplo.de/uk-en/02/citizenship/restoration-of-german-citizenship/2463592 |access-date=2022-05-31 |website=uk.diplo.de |language=en}}</ref>{{better source needed|reason=Title of cited sourse is confusing|date=September 2024}}

====Israel====
{{main article|Israeli citizenship law}}
The primary principles of Israeli citizenship is ''[[jus sanguinis]]'' (citizenship by descent) for Jews and ''[[jus soli]]'' (citizenship by place of birth) for others.<ref name="safran1997">{{cite journal|first=William|last=Safran|date=1997-07-01|title=Citizenship and Nationality in Democratic Systems: Approaches to Defining and Acquiring Membership in the Political Community|publisher=SAGE Publishing|journal=International Political Science Review|volume=18|issue=3|pages=313–335|doi=10.1177/019251297018003006|s2cid=145476893|doi-access=free}}</ref>

====India====
{{main article|Indian nationality law}}
Indian Citizenship Act, 1955,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Citizenship Act, 1955 |url=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/1522/1/a1955-57.pdf |website=National Informatics Centre, India}}</ref> the first law in Indian history to establish rules for citizenship are ''[[jus soli]]'' (citizenship by place of birth), ''[[jus sanguinis]]'' (citizenship by descent), [[Indian nationality law#Voluntary acquisition|citizenship by registration]], [[Indian nationality law#Voluntary acquisition|citizenship by naturalization]] and citizenship by incorporation of territory.