Editing Christianity (section)

== History ==
{{Main|History of Christianity}}
{{For timeline}}

=== Early Christianity ===
{{Main|Early Christianity}}
{{further|Historical background of the New Testament}}

==== Apostolic Age ====
{{Main|Christianity in the 1st century}}
{{further|Chronology of Jesus}}
[[File:PikiWiki Israel 73792 mount zion jerusalem.jpg|thumb|The [[Cenacle]] on [[Mount Zion]] in [[Jerusalem]], claimed to be the location of the [[Last Supper]] and [[Pentecost]]]]

Christianity developed during the 1st century AD in [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]] as a [[Jewish Christian]] sect with [[Hellenistic religion|Hellenistic]] influence<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |entry=Evodius of Antioch → Antioch, Church of |encyclopedia=Brill Encyclopedia of Early Christianity Online |doi=10.1163/2589-7993_eeco_dum_00001220 |title=Evodius of Antioch → Antioch, Church of |date=2018 }}</ref> of [[Second Temple Judaism]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Catherine |last=Cory |title=Christian Theological Tradition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SsZcCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 |year=2015 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-317-34958-7 |at=p. 20 and forward}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Stephen |last=Benko |title=Pagan Rome and the Early Christians |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LHHxkapsiEgC&pg=PA22 |year=1984 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]]|isbn=978-0-253-34286-7 |at=p. 22 and forward}}</ref> An early Jewish Christian community was founded in [[Jerusalem]] under the leadership of the three [[Pillars of the Church]], namely [[James the Just]], [[Saint Peter|Peter]], and [[John the Apostle|John]].<ref>{{Citation |last=McGrath |first=Alister E. |author-link=Alister McGrath |year=2006 |title=Christianity: An Introduction |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=1-4051-0899-1 |page=174}}</ref>

Jewish Christianity soon attracted [[Gentile]] [[God-fearer]]s, posing a problem for its [[Jewish principles of faith|Jewish religious outlook]], which insisted on close observance of the Jewish commandments. [[Paul the Apostle]] solved this by insisting that salvation by [[Pistis Christou|faith in Christ]], and [[Participation in Christ|participation]] in his death and resurrection by their baptism, sufficed.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Seifrid |first=Mark A. |author-link=Mark A. Seifrid |title=Justification by Faith: The Origin and Development of a Central Pauline Theme |chapter='Justification by Faith' and The Disposition of Paul's Argument |series=[[Novum Testamentum]] |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |year=1992 |isbn=9004095217 |issn=0167-9732 |pages=210–211, 246–247 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KdUkuOtOw68C&pg=PA210}}</ref> At first he persecuted the early Christians, but after a conversion experience he preached to the gentiles, and is regarded as having had a formative effect on the emerging [[Christians|Christian]] identity as [[Split of Christianity and Judaism|separate from Judaism]]. Eventually, his departure from Jewish customs would result in the establishment of Christianity as an independent religion.<ref>Wylen, Stephen M., ''The Jews in the Time of Jesus: An Introduction'', Paulist Press (1995), {{ISBN|0809136104}}, pp. 190–192; Dunn, James D.G., ''Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways, A.D. 70 to 135'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (1999), {{ISBN|0802844987}}, [pp. 33–34.; Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro & Gargola, Daniel J & Talbert, Richard John Alexander, ''The Romans: From Village to Empire'', Oxford University Press (2004), {{ISBN|0195118758}}, p. 426.</ref>

==== Ante-Nicene period ====
{{Main|Christianity in the ante-Nicene period}}
{{further|Great Church|Gnosticism}}
[[File:P46.jpg|thumb|upright|A folio from [[Papyrus 46]], an early-3rd-century collection of [[Pauline epistles]]]]

This formative period was followed by the early [[bishop]]s, whom Christians consider the [[apostolic succession|successors of Christ's apostles]]. From the year 150, Christian teachers began to produce theological and apologetic works aimed at defending the faith. These authors are known as the [[Church Fathers]], and the study of them is called [[patristics]]. Notable early Fathers include [[Ignatius of Antioch]], [[Polycarp]], [[Justin Martyr]], [[Irenaeus]], [[Tertullian]], [[Clement of Alexandria]] and [[Origen]].

[[Persecution of Christians]] occurred intermittently and on a small scale by both Jewish and [[Persecution of early Christians by the Romans|Roman authorities]], with Roman action starting at the time of the [[Great Fire of Rome]] in 64 AD. Examples of early executions under Jewish authority reported in the [[New Testament]] include the deaths of [[Saint Stephen]]<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|7:59}}</ref> and [[James, son of Zebedee]].<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|12:2}}</ref> The [[Decian persecution]] was the first empire-wide conflict,<ref>Martin, D. 2010. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v1Bh_SAEU90 ''The "Afterlife" of the New Testament and Postmodern Interpretation''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160608093412/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v1Bh_SAEU90 |date=8 June 2016 }} ([https://cosmolearning.org/video-lectures/the-afterlife-of-the-new-testament-and-postmodern-interpretation-6819/ lecture transcript] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812141627/https://cosmolearning.org/video-lectures/the-afterlife-of-the-new-testament-and-postmodern-interpretation-6819/ |date=12 August 2016 }}). Yale University.</ref> when the edict of [[Decius]] in 250 AD required everyone in the Roman Empire (except Jews) to perform a sacrifice to the Roman gods. The [[Diocletianic Persecution]] beginning in 303 AD was also particularly severe. Roman persecution ended in 313 AD with the [[Edict of Milan]].

While [[Proto-orthodox Christianity]] was becoming dominant, heterodox sects also existed at the same time, which held radically different beliefs. [[Gnostic Christianity]] developed a [[duotheistic]] doctrine based on illusion and enlightenment rather than forgiveness of sin. With only a few scriptures overlapping with the developing orthodox canon, most [[Gnostic texts]] and [[Gnostic gospels]] were eventually considered heretical and suppressed by mainstream Christians. A gradual splitting off of [[Gentile Christianity]] left [[Jewish Christians]] continuing to follow the [[Law of Moses]], including practices such as circumcision. By the fifth century, they and the [[Jewish–Christian gospels]] would be largely suppressed by the dominant sects in both Judaism and Christianity.

=== Spread and acceptance in the Roman Empire ===
{{further|Christianity in late antiquity}}
{{see also|Historiography of the Christianization of the Roman Empire}}
[[File:Mor-mattai.png|thumb|The [[Mar Mattai Monastery|Monastery of St. Matthew]], located atop [[Mount Alfaf]] in northern [[Iraq]], is recognized as one of the oldest Christian monasteries in existence.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cso-france.voila.net/Monastere_Saint_Mattai.htm|language=fr|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303004713/https://cso-france.voila.net/Monastere_Saint_Mattai.htm|title=Monastère de Mor Mattai – Mossul – Irak|archive-date=3 March 2014}}</ref>]]

Christianity spread to [[Aramaic]]-speaking peoples along the [[Mediterranean coast]] and also to the inland parts of the [[Roman Empire]] and beyond that into the [[Parthian Empire]] and the later [[Sasanian Empire]], including [[Mesopotamia]], which was dominated at different times and to varying extents by these empires.<ref>Michael Whitby, et al. eds. ''Christian Persecution, Martyrdom and Orthodoxy'' (2006) [https://www.questia.com/read/115080283?title=Christian%20Persecution%2c%20Martyrdom%2c%20and%20Orthodoxy online edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110624034855/https://www.questia.com/read/115080283?title=Christian%20Persecution%2c%20Martyrdom%2c%20and%20Orthodoxy|date=24 June 2011}}</ref> The presence of Christianity in Africa began in the middle of the 1st century in Egypt and by the end of the 2nd century in the region around [[Carthage]]. [[Mark the Evangelist]] is claimed to have started the [[Church of Alexandria]] in about 43 AD; various later churches claim this as their own legacy, including the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]].<ref>[[Eusebius of Caesarea]], the author of ''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Ecclesiastical History]]'' in the 4th century, states that St. Mark came to Egypt in the first or third year of the reign of Emperor Claudius, i.e. 41 or 43 AD. "Two Thousand years of Coptic Christianity" Otto F.A. Meinardus p. 28.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bethel.edu/~letnie/AfricanChristianity/WesternNorthAfricaHomepage.html |title=A History of the Christian Church in Western North Africa |first=Neil |last=Lettinga |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010730174045/https://www.bethel.edu/~letnie/AfricanChristianity/WesternNorthAfricaHomepage.html |archive-date=30 July 2001 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.allaboutreligion.org/history-of-christianity-in-africa-faq.htm |title=Allaboutreligion.org |publisher=Allaboutreligion.org |access-date=19 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101116113632/https://allaboutreligion.org/history-of-christianity-in-africa-faq.htm |archive-date=16 November 2010}}</ref> Important Africans who influenced the early development of Christianity include [[Tertullian]], [[Clement of Alexandria]], [[Origen of Alexandria]], [[Cyprian]], [[Athanasius]], and [[Augustine of Hippo]].

[[File:Khor Virap Monastery and Mount Ararat, Armenia.jpg|thumb|The 7th-century [[Khor Virap]] monastery in the shadow of [[Mount Ararat]]; [[Armenia]] was the first state to adopt Christianity as the state religion in the early 4th century AD.<ref name="CIA"/><ref name="almanac"/>]]
[[Tiridates III of Armenia|King Tiridates III]] made Christianity the [[state religion]] in [[Armenia]] in the early 4th century AD, making Armenia the first officially Christian state.<ref name="CIA">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Armenia|access-date=8 October 2011}}</ref><ref name="almanac">{{cite book |last=Brunner |first=Borgna |title=Time Almanac with Information Please 2007|page=[https://archive.org/details/timealmanac2007w00brun/page/685 685] |isbn=978-1-933405-49-0 |year=2006 |publisher=Time Home Entertainment |location=New York|url=https://archive.org/details/timealmanac2007w00brun/page/685}}</ref> It was not an entirely new religion in Armenia, having penetrated into the country from at least the third century, but it may have been present even earlier.<ref>{{cite journal|last=van Lint|first=Theo Maarten |title=The Formation of Armenian Identity in the First Millennium |journal=Church History and Religious Culture|year=2009 |volume=89 |issue=1/3 |page=269}}</ref>

[[Constantine the Great|Constantine I]] was exposed to Christianity in his youth, and throughout his life his support for the religion grew, culminating in baptism on his deathbed.<ref>{{cite book |title= Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium |last=Harris |first=Jonathan |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |edition=2nd |year=2017 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=b-ECDgAAQBAJ |page=38 |isbn= 978-1-4742-5467-0}}</ref> During his reign, state-sanctioned persecution of Christians was ended with the [[Edict of Serdica|Edict of Toleration]] in 311 and the [[Edict of Milan]] in 313. At that point, Christianity was still a minority belief, comprising perhaps only 5% of the Roman population.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Christianity: A Global History|last=Chidester|first=David|publisher=HarperOne|year=2000|page=91}}</ref> Influenced by his adviser [[Mardonius (philosopher)|Mardonius]], Constantine's nephew [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]] unsuccessfully tried to suppress Christianity.<ref>{{harvnb|Ricciotti|1999}}</ref> On 27 February 380, [[Theodosius I]], [[Gratian]], and [[Valentinian II]] issued the [[Edict of Thessalonica]] establishing [[Nicene Christianity]] as the [[State church of the Roman Empire]].<ref>[https://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/theodcodeXVI.html Theodosian Code XVI.i.2] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814182634/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/theodcodeXVI.html |date=14 August 2014 }}, in: Bettenson. ''Documents of the Christian Church''. p. 31.</ref> As soon as it became connected to the state, Christianity grew wealthy; the Church solicited donations from the rich and could now own land.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Empires in World History: Power and the Politics of Difference |last1=Burbank |first1=Jane |last2=Copper |first2=Frederick|publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2010 |page=64}}</ref>

Constantine was also instrumental in the convocation of the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in 325, which sought to address [[Arianism]] and formulated the Nicene Creed, which is still used by in [[Catholicism]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], [[Lutheranism]], [[Anglicanism]], and many other [[Protestant]] churches.<ref>{{cite book |last1=McTavish |first1=T. J. |title=A Theological Miscellany: 160 Pages of Odd, Merry, Essentially Inessential Facts, Figures, and Tidbits about Christianity |year=2010 |publisher=Thomas Nelson |isbn=978-1-4185-5281-7 |quote=The Nicene Creed, as used in the churches of the West (Anglican, Catholic, Lutheran, and others), contains the statement, "We believe [''or'' I believe] in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father and the Son."}}</ref><ref name="UMC—Our Common Heritage as Christians" /> Nicaea was the first of a series of [[ecumenical council]]s, which formally defined critical elements of the theology of the Church, notably concerning [[Christology]].<ref>McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', pp. 37ff.</ref> The [[Church of the East]] did not accept the third and following ecumenical councils and is still separate today by its successors ([[Assyrian Church of the East]]).

In terms of prosperity and cultural life, the [[Byzantine Empire]] was one of the peaks in [[Christian history]] and [[Christian civilization]],<ref name="Cameron 2006 42">{{harvnb|Cameron|2006|p=42}}.</ref> and [[Constantinople]] remained the leading city of the [[Christian world]] in size, wealth, and culture.<ref>{{harvnb|Cameron|2006|p=47}}.</ref> [[Greek scholars in the Renaissance|There was a renewed interest in classical Greek philosophy]], as well as an increase in literary output in vernacular Greek.<ref>{{harvnb|Browning|1992|pp=198–208}}.</ref> Byzantine art and literature held a preeminent place in Europe, and the cultural impact of [[Byzantine art]] on the West during this period was enormous and of long-lasting significance.<ref>{{harvnb|Browning|1992|p=218}}.</ref> The later rise of [[Islam]] in North Africa reduced the size and numbers of Christian congregations, leaving in large numbers only the [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Coptic Church]] in Egypt, the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]] in the Horn of Africa and the [[Christianity in Sudan|Nubian Church]] in the Sudan (Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia).

=== Middle Ages ===
{{Main|Christianity in the Middle Ages}}

==== Early Middle Ages ====
With the decline and [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire|fall of the Roman Empire in the West]], the [[papacy]] became a political player, first visible in [[Pope Leo I|Pope Leo]]'s diplomatic dealings with [[Attila the Hun|Huns]] and [[Vandals]].<ref name="Gonzalez-p238" /> The church also entered into a long period of missionary activity and expansion among the various tribes. While [[Arianism|Arianists]] instituted the death penalty for practicing pagans (see the [[Massacre of Verden]], for example), [[Catholicism]] also spread among the [[Hungarians]], the [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]],<ref name="Gonzalez-p238">{{harvnb|González|1984|pp=238–242}}</ref> the [[Celts|Celtic]], the [[Baltic peoples|Baltic]] and some [[Slavic peoples]].<ref>{{harvnb|Chadwick|1995|pp=60, 130}}</ref>

Around 500, Christianity was thoroughly integrated into Byzantine and [[Ostrogothic Kingdom|Kingdom of Italy]] culture<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harari |first=Yuval Noah |title=Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind |publisher=Penguin Random House |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-09-959008-8 |location=London |pages=243, 247 |translator-last=Harari |translator-first=Yuval Noah |author-link=Yuval Noah Harari |translator-last2=Purcell |translator-first2=John |translator-last3=Watzman |translator-first3=Haim |translator-link=Yuval Noah Harari |translator-link3=Haim Watzman}}</ref> and [[Benedict of Nursia]] set out [[Rule of Saint Benedict|his Monastic Rule]], establishing a system of regulations for the foundation and running of [[monasteries]].<ref name="Gonzalez-p238" /> [[Monasticism]] became a powerful force throughout Europe,<ref name="Gonzalez-p238" /> and gave rise to many early centers of learning, most famously in [[Ireland]], [[Scotland]], and [[Gaul]], contributing to the [[Carolingian Renaissance]] of the 9th century.

[[File:Krist spred 3.jpg|thumb|[[Christendom]] by AD 600 after its [[Spread of Christianity|spread to Africa and Europe]] from the Middle East]]
In the 7th century, [[Muslim conquest of Syria|Muslims conquered Syria]] (including [[Jerusalem]]), North Africa, and Spain, converting some of the Christian population to [[Islam]], including some of the [[Christianity in pre-Islamic Arabia|Christian populations in pre-Islamic Arabia]], and placing the rest under a separate [[Dhimmi|legal status]]. Part of the Muslims' success was due to the exhaustion of the Byzantine Empire in its decades long conflict with [[Persia]].{{sfn|Mullin|2008|p=88}} Beginning in the 8th century, with the rise of [[Carolingian]] leaders, the Papacy sought greater political support in the [[Frankish Kingdom]].{{sfn|Mullin|2008|pp=93–94}}

The Middle Ages brought about major changes within the church.<ref>''Religions in Global Society''. p. 146, Peter Beyer, 2006</ref><ref>Cambridge University Historical Series, ''An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects'', p. 40: Hebraism, like Hellenism, has been an all-important factor in the development of Western Civilization; Judaism, as the precursor of Christianity, has indirectly had had much to do with shaping the ideals and morality of western nations since the christian era.</ref><ref>Caltron J.H Hayas, ''Christianity and Western Civilization'' (1953), Stanford University Press, p. 2: "That certain distinctive features of our Western civilization—the civilization of western Europe and of America—have been shaped chiefly by Judaeo – Graeco – Christianity, Catholic and Protestant."</ref><ref>Fred Reinhard Dallmayr, ''Dialogue Among Civilizations: Some Exemplary Voices'' (2004), p. 22: Western civilization is also sometimes described as "Christian" or "Judaeo- Christian" civilization.</ref> [[Pope Gregory the Great]] dramatically reformed the [[Ecclesiastical polity|ecclesiastical structure]] and administration.<ref>{{harvnb|González|1984|pp=244–47}}</ref> In the early 8th century, [[iconoclasm]] became a divisive issue, when it was sponsored by the [[Byzantium|Byzantine]] emperors. The [[Second Council of Nicaea|Second Ecumenical Council of Nicaea]] (787) finally pronounced in favor of icons.<ref>{{harvnb|González|1984|p=260}}</ref> In the early 10th century, Western Christian monasticism was further rejuvenated through the leadership of the great Benedictine monastery of [[Cluny Abbey|Cluny]].<ref>{{harvnb|González|1984|pp=278–281}}</ref>

==== High and Late Middle Ages ====
[[File:Jesus-Christ-from-Hagia-Sophia.jpg|thumb|upright|An example of Byzantine pictorial art, the [[Deësis]] mosaic at the [[Hagia Sophia#Deësis mosaic|Hagia Sophia]] in [[Constantinople]]]]
[[File:Passages d'outremer Fr5594, fol. 19r, Concile de Clermont.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pope Urban II]] at the [[Council of Clermont]], where he preached the [[First Crusade]]. Illustration by [[Jean Colombe]] from the ''[[Passages d'outremer]]'', {{c.|1490|lk=no}}.]]
In the West, from the 11th century onward, some older cathedral schools [[Medieval university|became universities]] (see, for example, [[University of Oxford]], [[University of Paris]] and [[University of Bologna]]). Previously, higher education had been the domain of Christian [[cathedral school]]s or [[monastic school]]s (''Scholae monasticae''), led by [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s. Evidence of such schools dates back to the 6th century&nbsp;AD.<ref>Riché, Pierre (1978): "Education and Culture in the Barbarian West: From the Sixth through the Eighth Century", Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, {{ISBN|0872493768}}, pp.&nbsp;126–127, 282–298</ref> These new universities expanded the curriculum to include academic programs for clerics, lawyers, civil servants, and physicians.<ref>Rudy, ''The Universities of Europe, 1100–1914'', p. 40</ref> The university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the [[History of Christianity|Medieval Christian]] setting.<ref name=verger1999>{{cite book |last=Verger |first=Jacques |year=1999 |author-link=:fr:Jacques Verger|title=Culture, enseignement et société en Occident aux XIIe et XIIIe siècles |edition=1st |language=fr |publisher=Presses universitaires de Rennes in Rennes |isbn=978-2868473448 |url=https://openlibrary.org/works/OL822497W |access-date=17 June 2014}}</ref><ref>Verger, Jacques. "The Universities and Scholasticism", in The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume V c. 1198–c. 1300. Cambridge University Press, 2007, 257.</ref><ref>Rüegg, Walter: "Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: ''A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages'', Cambridge University Press, 1992, {{ISBN|0521361052}}, pp. xix–xx</ref>

Accompanying the rise of the "new towns" throughout Europe, [[mendicant order]]s were founded, bringing the [[Consecrated life (Catholic Church)|consecrated religious life]] out of the monastery and into the new urban setting. The two principal mendicant movements were the [[Franciscans]]<ref>{{harvnb|González|1984|pp=303–307, 310ff., 384–386}}</ref> and the [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]],<ref>{{harvnb|González|1984|pp=305, 310ff., 316ff}}</ref> founded by [[Francis of Assisi]] and [[Saint Dominic|Dominic]], respectively. Both orders made significant contributions to the development of the great universities of Europe. Another new order was the [[Cistercians]], whose large, isolated monasteries spearheaded the settlement of former wilderness areas. In this period, church building and ecclesiastical architecture reached new heights, culminating in the orders of [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] and [[Gothic architecture]] and the building of the great European cathedrals.<ref>{{harvnb|González|1984|pp=321–323, 365ff}}</ref>

[[Christian nationalism]] emerged during this era in which Christians felt the desire to recover lands in which Christianity had historically flourished.<ref>{{cite book |title=Parole de l'Orient |volume=30 |year=2005 |publisher=Université Saint-Esprit |page=488}}</ref> From 1095 under the pontificate of [[Urban II]], the [[First Crusade]] was launched.<ref>{{harvnb|González|1984|pp=292–300}}</ref> These were a series of military campaigns in the [[Holy Land]] and elsewhere, initiated in response to pleas from the Byzantine Emperor [[Alexios I]] for aid against [[Turkish people|Turkish]] expansion. The Crusades ultimately failed to stifle Islamic aggression and even contributed to Christian enmity with the sacking of [[Constantinople]] during the [[Fourth Crusade]].<ref>Riley-Smith. ''The Oxford History of the Crusades''.</ref>

The Christian Church experienced internal conflict between the 7th and 13th centuries that resulted in a [[East-West Schism|schism]] between the [[Latin Church]] of [[Western Christianity]] branch, the now-Catholic Church, and an [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern]], largely Greek, branch (the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]). The two sides disagreed on a number of administrative, liturgical and doctrinal issues, most prominently [[Eastern Orthodox opposition to papal supremacy]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.orthodoxinfo.com/general/greatschism.aspx|title = The Great Schism: The Estrangement of Eastern and Western Christendom|publisher=Orthodox Information Centre|access-date = 26 May 2007|archive-date = 29 June 2007|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070629153450/http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/general/greatschism.aspx|url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 91</ref> The [[Second Council of Lyon]] (1274) and the [[Council of Florence]] (1439) attempted to reunite the churches, but in both cases, the Eastern Orthodox refused to implement the decisions, and the two principal churches remain in schism to the present day. However, the Catholic Church has achieved union with various [[Eastern Catholic Churches|smaller eastern churches]].

In the thirteenth century, a new emphasis on Jesus' suffering, exemplified by the Franciscans' preaching, had the consequence of turning worshippers' attention towards Jews, on whom [[Jewish deicide|Christians had placed the blame for Jesus' death]]. Christianity's limited tolerance of Jews was not new—Augustine of Hippo said that Jews should not be allowed to enjoy the citizenship that Christians took for granted—but the growing antipathy towards Jews was a factor that led to [[Edict of Expulsion|the expulsion of Jews from England in 1290]], the first of many such expulsions in Europe.<ref>{{cite book |last=MacCulloch |first=Diarmaid |title=Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years |publisher=Penguin |year=2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7x4m20TRYzQC |isbn=978-1-101-18999-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Telushkin |first=Joseph |title=Jewish Literacy |publisher=HarperCollins |pages=[https://archive.org/details/jewishliteracy00telu/page/192 192–193] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-688-08506-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/jewishliteracy00telu/page/192}}</ref>

Beginning around 1184, following the crusade against [[Cathars|Cathar]] heresy,<ref>{{harvnb|González|1984|pp=300, 304–305}}</ref> various institutions, broadly referred to as the [[Inquisition]], were established with the aim of suppressing [[heresy]] and securing religious and doctrinal unity within Christianity through [[religious conversion|conversion]] and prosecution.<ref>{{harvnb|González|1984|pp=310, 383, 385, 391}}</ref>

=== Modern era ===
{{Main|Christianity in the modern era}}

==== Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation ====
{{Main|Reformation|Counter-Reformation}}
{{See also|European wars of religion|Renaissance Papacy}}
[[File:Luther 95 Thesen.png|thumb|upright|[[Martin Luther]] initiated the [[Reformation]] with his ''[[Ninety-five Theses]]'' in 1517.]]

The 15th-century [[Renaissance]] brought about a renewed interest in ancient and classical learning. During the [[Reformation]], [[Martin Luther]] posted the ''[[Ninety-five Theses]]'' 1517 against the sale of [[indulgences]].<ref name="Simon">Simon. ''Great Ages of Man: The Reformation''. pp. 39, 55–61.</ref> Printed copies soon spread throughout Europe. In 1521 the [[Edict of Worms]] condemned and excommunicated Luther and his followers, resulting in the schism of the [[Western Christianity|Western Christendom]] into several branches.<ref>Simon. ''Great Ages of Man: The Reformation''. p. 7.</ref>

Other reformers like [[Huldrych Zwingli|Zwingli]], [[Johannes Oecolampadius|Oecolampadius]], [[John Calvin|Calvin]], [[John Knox|Knox]], and [[Jacobus Arminius|Arminius]] further criticized Catholic teaching and worship. These challenges developed into the movement called [[Protestantism]], which repudiated the [[papal primacy|primacy of the pope]], the role of tradition, the [[Catholic sacraments|seven sacraments]], and other doctrines and practices.<ref name="Simon" /> The [[English Reformation|Reformation in England]] began in 1534, when [[Henry VIII of England|King Henry VIII]] had himself [[Act of Supremacy|declared head]] of the [[Church of England]]. Beginning in 1536, the monasteries throughout England, Wales and Ireland were [[Dissolution of the monasteries|dissolved]].<ref>Schama. ''A History of Britain''. pp. 306–310.</ref>

[[Thomas Müntzer]], [[Andreas Karlstadt]] and other theologians perceived both the Catholic Church and the confessions of the [[Magisterial Reformation]] as corrupted. Their activity brought about the [[Radical Reformation]], which gave birth to various [[Anabaptism|Anabaptist]] denominations.

[[File:Michelangelo's Pieta 5450 cropncleaned edit.jpg|thumb|[[Michelangelo]]'s 1498–99 ''[[Michelangelo's Pietà|Pietà]]'' in [[St. Peter's Basilica]]; the Catholic Church was among the patronages of the [[Renaissance]].<ref>National Geographic, 254.</ref><ref>Jensen, De Lamar (1992), ''Renaissance Europe'', {{ISBN|0395889472}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Levey|first=Michael|title=Early Renaissance|publisher=Penguin |year=1967}}</ref>]]
Partly in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church engaged in a substantial process of reform and renewal, known as the [[Counter-Reformation]] or Catholic Reform.{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|pp=242–244}} The [[Council of Trent]] clarified and reasserted Catholic doctrine. During the following centuries, competition between Catholicism and Protestantism became deeply entangled with political struggles among European states.<ref>Simon. ''Great Ages of Man: The Reformation''. pp. 109–120.</ref>

Meanwhile, the discovery of America by [[Christopher Columbus]] in 1492 brought about a new wave of missionary activity. Partly from missionary zeal, but under the impetus of [[Colonialism|colonial expansion]] by the European powers, Christianity spread to the Americas, Oceania, East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.

Throughout Europe, the division caused by the Reformation led to outbreaks of [[religious violence]] and the establishment of separate state churches in Europe. [[Lutheranism]] spread into the northern, central, and eastern parts of present-day Germany, [[Livonia]], and Scandinavia. [[Anglicanism]] was established in England in 1534. [[Calvinism]] and its varieties, such as [[Presbyterianism]], were introduced in Scotland, the Netherlands, Hungary, Switzerland, and France. [[Arminianism]] gained followers in the Netherlands and [[Frisia]]. Ultimately, these differences led to the outbreak of [[religious war|conflicts]] in which religion played a key factor. The [[Thirty Years' War]], the [[English Civil War]], and the [[French Wars of Religion]] are prominent examples. These events intensified the [[Christian debate on persecution and toleration]].<ref>A general overview about the English discussion is given in Coffey, ''Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England 1558–1689''.</ref>

In the revival of neoplatonism [[Renaissance humanism|Renaissance humanists]] did not reject Christianity; quite the contrary, many of the greatest works of the [[Renaissance]] were devoted to it, and the Catholic Church patronized many works of [[Renaissance art]].<ref name="openuni">Open University, ''[https://www.open.ac.uk/Arts/renaissance2/religion.htm Looking at the Renaissance: Religious Context in the Renaissance]'' (Retrieved 10 May 2007)</ref> Much, if not most, of the new art was commissioned by or in dedication to the Church.<ref name="openuni" /> Some scholars and historians attribute Christianity to having contributed to the rise of the [[Scientific Revolution]].<ref>Some scholars and historians attribute Christianity to having contributed to the rise of the Scientific Revolution:

* {{cite web |last1=Harrison |first1=Peter |date=8 May 2012 |title=Christianity and the rise of western science |url=https://www.abc.net.au/religion/articles/2012/05/08/3498202.htm |access-date=28 August 2014 |website=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]}}
* {{citation |last=Noll |first=Mark |title=Science, Religion, and A.D. White: Seeking Peace in the "Warfare Between Science and Theology" |url=https://biologos.org/uploads/projects/noll_scholarly_essay2.pdf |page=4 |access-date=14 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150322013257/https://biologos.org/uploads/projects/noll_scholarly_essay2.pdf |url-status=dead |publisher=The Biologos Foundation |archive-date=22 March 2015 |author-link=Mark Noll}}
* {{Citation |last1=Lindberg |first1=David C. |title=God & Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science |pages=5, 12 |year=1986 |chapter=Introduction |place=Berkeley and Los Angeles |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-05538-4 |last2=Numbers |first2=Ronald L. |author-link=David C. Lindberg |author2-link=Ronald L. Numbers}}
* {{cite book |last=Gilley |first=Sheridan |title=The Cambridge History of Christianity: Volume 8, World Christianities c. 1815 – c. 1914 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |others=Brian Stanley |year=2006 |isbn=0-521-81456-1 |page=164}}
* Lindberg, David. (1992). ''The Beginnings of Western Science''. University of Chicago Press. p. 204.</ref> Many well-known historical figures who influenced [[Western science]] considered themselves Christian such as [[Nicolaus Copernicus]],<ref>''Pro forma'' candidate to Prince-Bishop of Warmia, cf. Dobrzycki, Jerzy, and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikołaj", ''[[Polski słownik biograficzny]]'' (Polish Biographical Dictionary), vol. XIV, Wrocław, [[Polish Academy of Sciences]], 1969, p. 11.</ref> [[Galileo Galilei]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Sharratt |first=Michael |year=1994 |title=Galileo: Decisive Innovator |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-56671-1|pages=17, 213}}</ref> [[Johannes Kepler]],<ref>"Because he would not accept the Formula of Concord without some reservations, he was excommunicated from the Lutheran communion. Because he remained faithful to his Lutheranism throughout his life, he experienced constant suspicion from Catholics." John L. Treloar, "Biography of Kepler shows man of rare integrity. Astronomer saw science and spirituality as one." ''National Catholic Reporter'', 8 October 2004, p. 2a. A review of James A. Connor ''Kepler's Witch: An Astronomer's Discovery of Cosmic Order amid Religious War, Political Intrigue and Heresy Trial of His Mother'', Harper San Francisco.</ref> [[Isaac Newton]]<ref>[[Richard S. Westfall]] – [[Indiana University]] {{cite book |url=https://galileo.rice.edu/Catalog/NewFiles/newton.html |title=The Galileo Project |publisher=[[Rice University]] |access-date=5 July 2008<!-- , 2012-02-07-->}}</ref> and [[Robert Boyle]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.stmarylebow.co.uk/?Boyle_Lecture |title=The Boyle Lecture |work=St. Marylebow Church |access-date=18 February 2022 |archive-date=22 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222051144/http://www.stmarylebow.co.uk/?Boyle_Lecture |url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== Post-Enlightenment ====
[[File:Madonna and Child, Kakure Kirishitan.jpg|thumb|A depiction of [[Madonna and Child]] in a 19th-century [[Kakure Kirishitan]] [[Ukiyo-e|Japanese woodcut]]]]
In the era known as the [[Great Divergence]], when in the West, the [[Age of Enlightenment]] and the [[scientific revolution]] brought about great societal changes, Christianity was confronted with various forms of [[skepticism]] and with certain modern [[Ideology|political ideologies]], such as versions of [[socialism]] and [[liberalism]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Novak|first=Michael|title=Catholic social thought and liberal institutions: Freedom with justice|year=1988|publisher=Transaction|isbn=978-0-88738-763-0|page=63|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7pb1GDmxA1UC&pg=PA63}}</ref> Events ranged from mere [[anti-clericalism]] to violent outbursts against Christianity, such as the [[dechristianisation of France during the French Revolution|dechristianization of France during the French Revolution]],<ref>Mortimer Chambers, ''The Western Experience'' (vol. 2) chapter 21.</ref> the [[Spanish Civil War]], and certain [[Marxism|Marxist]] movements, especially [[Russian Revolution (1917)|the Russian Revolution]] and the [[persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union]] under [[state atheism]].<ref>''Religion and the State in Russia and China: Suppression, Survival, and Revival'', by Christopher Marsh, p. 47. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2011.</ref><ref>''Inside Central Asia: A Political and Cultural History'', by Dilip Hiro. Penguin, 2009.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Adappur|first=Abraham|title=Religion and the Cultural Crisis in India and the West|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=44DYAAAAMAAJ|year=2000|publisher=Intercultural Publications|isbn=978-8185574479|quote=Forced Conversion under Atheistic Regimes: It might be added that the most modern example of forced "conversions" came not from any theocratic state, but from a professedly atheist government—that of the Soviet Union under the Communists.}}</ref><ref>Geoffrey Blainey 2011). ''A Short History of Christianity''; Viking; p. 494</ref>

Especially pressing in Europe was the formation of [[nation states]] after the [[Napoleonic era]]. In all European countries, different Christian denominations found themselves in competition to greater or lesser extents with each other and with the state. Variables were the relative sizes of the denominations and the religious, political, and ideological orientation of the states. Urs Altermatt of the [[University of Fribourg]], looking specifically at Catholicism in Europe, identifies four models for the European nations. In traditionally Catholic-majority countries such as Belgium, Spain, and Austria, to some extent, religious and national communities are more or less identical. Cultural symbiosis and separation are found in Poland, the Republic of Ireland, and Switzerland, all countries with competing denominations. Competition is found in Germany, the Netherlands, and again Switzerland, all countries with minority Catholic populations, which to a greater or lesser extent identified with the nation. Finally, separation between religion (again, specifically Catholicism) and the state is found to a great degree in France and Italy, countries where the state actively opposed itself to the authority of the Catholic Church.<ref>{{cite book|last=Altermatt|first=Urs|title=Religion und Nation: Katholizismen im Europa des 19. und 20. Jahrhundert|year=2007|publisher=[[Kohlhammer Verlag]]|isbn=978-3-17-019977-4|pages=15–34|editor-first=Urs |editor-last=Altermatt |editor-first2=Franziska |editor-last2=Metzger|language=de|chapter=Katholizismus und Nation: Vier Modelle in europäisch-vergleichender Perspektive}}</ref>

The combined factors of the formation of nation states and [[ultramontanism]], especially in Germany and the Netherlands, but also in England to a much lesser extent,<ref>{{cite book |last=Heimann |first=Mary |title=Catholic Devotion in Victorian England |year=1995 |publisher=Clarendon |isbn=978-0-19-820597-5 |pages=165–173}}</ref> often forced Catholic churches, organizations, and believers to choose between the national demands of the state and the authority of the Church, specifically the papacy. This conflict came to a head in the [[First Vatican Council]], and in Germany would lead directly to the ''[[Kulturkampf]]''.<ref>''The Oxford Handbook of Modern German History'' Helmut Walser Smith, p. 360, OUP Oxford, 2011</ref>

[[File:Consecration of new pastors.jpg|thumb|[[Ordination]] of new pastors in [[Cameroon]], 2014]]
Christian commitment in Europe dropped as modernity and secularism came into their own,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-12811197 | work=BBC News | title=Religion may become extinct in nine nations, study says |date=22 March 2011}}</ref> particularly in the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Estonia]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www2.ttcn.ne.jp/~honkawa/9460.html |script-title=ja:図録▽世界各国の宗教 |publisher=.ttcn.ne.jp |language=ja |access-date=17 August 2012 |archive-date=18 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120818064540/http://www2.ttcn.ne.jp/~honkawa/9460.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> while religious commitments in America have been generally high in comparison to Europe. Changes in worldwide Christianity over the last century have been significant, since 1900, Christianity has spread rapidly in the [[Global South]] and Third World countries.<ref>{{cite book |last=Jenkins |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Jenkins |year=2011 |title=The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christianity |chapter=The Rise of the New Christianity |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rPBoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA101 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=101–133 |isbn=978-0-19-976746-5}}</ref> The late 20th century has shown the shift of Christian adherence to the [[Third World]] and the Southern Hemisphere in general,<ref>{{cite book |page=2 |title=Christianity as a World Religion |author-last1=Kim |author-first1=Sebastian |author-last2=Kim|author-link=Sebastian Kim |author-first2=Kirsteen |author-link2=Kirsteen Kim |publisher=Continuum|location=London |year=2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Jehu |last=Hanciles |title=Beyond Christendom: Globalization, African Migration, and the Transformation of the West |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vmCDAwAAQBAJ |year=2008 |publisher=Orbis |isbn=978-1-60833-103-1}}</ref> with the West no longer the chief standard bearer of Christianity. Approximately 7 to 10% of [[Arabs]] are [[Arab Christians and Arabic-speaking Christians|Christians]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Fargues|first=Philippe |title=Christian Communities in the Middle East |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-829388-0 |chapter=A Demographic Perspective |editor1-last=Pacini |editor1-first=Andrea}}</ref> most prevalent in Egypt, [[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Johnson |first1=Todd |title=Christianity in the Middle East |url=https://www.gordonconwell.edu/blog/christianity-in-the-middle-east/ |website=[[Gordon–Conwell Theological Seminary]] |access-date=13 December 2024 |date=26 February 2020}}</ref>