Editing Christian countercult movement (section)

==History==

===Precursors and pioneers===
Christians have applied theological criteria to assess the teachings of non-orthodox movements throughout church history.<ref>Saliba, ''Understanding New Religious Movements'', pp. 45–74.</ref><ref>Harold O. J. Brown, ''Heresies: The Image of Christ in the Mirror of Heresy and Orthodoxy from the Apostles to the Present'', Garden City: Doubleday, 1984.</ref><ref>J.W.C. Wand,''The Four Great Heresies: Nestorian, Eutychian, Apollinarian, Arian,'' London: A.R.Mowbray, 1955.</ref> The [[Apostles in the New Testament|Apostles]] themselves were involved in challenging the doctrines and claims of various teachers. The [[Apostle Paul]] wrote an entire [[epistle]], [[Epistle to the Galatians|Galatians]], antagonistic to the teachings of a [[Jews|Jewish]] sect that claimed adherence to the teachings of both [[Jesus]] and [[Moses]] (cf. [[Acts 15]] and [[Galatians 1|Gal. 1]]:6–10). The [[First Epistle of John]] is devoted to countering early [[Proto-Gnosticism|proto-Gnostic]] [[cult]]s that had arisen in the first century CE, all claiming to be Christian ([[1 John 2]]:19).{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}

The [[Early church|early Church]] in the [[Post-Apostolic Age|post-apostolic]] period was much more involved in "defending its frontiers against alternative [[Soteriology|soteriologies]]—either by defining its own position with greater and greater exactness, or by attacking other religions, and particularly the [[Greco-Roman mysteries|Hellenistic mysteries]]."<ref>[[Eric J. Sharpe]], ''Comparative Religion: A History'', London: Duckworth, 1975, p. 9</ref> In fact, a good deal of the early Christian literature is devoted to the exposure and refutation of unorthodox theology, [[Greco-Roman mysteries|mystery religions]] and [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] groups.<ref>Brown, ''Heresies'', pp. 38–69.</ref><ref>[[Ronald H. Nash]], ''Christianity and the Hellenistic World'', Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1984, pp. 213–24.</ref> [[Irenaeus]], [[Tertullian]] and [[Hippolytus of Rome]] were some of the early [[Christian apologetics|Christian apologists]] who engaged in critical analyses of unorthodox theology, Greco-Roman [[Paganism|pagan]] religions, and Gnostic groups.<ref>[[Avery Dulles]], ''A History of Apologetics'', Eugene: Wipf & Stock, 1999, pp. 22–58.</ref><ref>J.K.S.Reid, ''Christian Apologetics'', Grand Rapids: William Eerdmans, 1970, pp. 36–53.</ref><ref>[[Bengt Hagglund]], ''History of Theology'', trans. Gene J. Lund, St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1968, pp. 31–105.</ref>

In the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] tradition, some of the earliest writings opposing unorthodox groups (such as the [[Emanuel Swedenborg|Swedenborgians]]){{citation needed|date=April 2020}} can be traced back to [[John Wesley]], [[Alexander Campbell (clergyman)|Alexander Campbell]] and [[Princeton Theological Seminary]] theologians like [[Charles Hodge]] and [[B. B. Warfield]].<ref>[[Richard G. Kyle]], ''The Religious Fringe: A History of Alternative Religions in America'', Downers Grove: IVP, 1993.</ref><ref>[[Philip Jenkins]], ''Mystics and Messiahs: Cults and New Religions in American History'', New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.</ref> The first known usage of the term ''cult'' by a Protestant apologist to denote a group is heretical or unorthodox is in ''Anti-Christian Cults'' by A. H. Barrington, published in 1898.<ref>A.H.Barrington, ''Anti-Christian Cults'', Milwaukee: Young Churchman/London: Sampson Low, Marston, 1898.</ref>

Quite a few of the pioneering apologists were [[Baptists|Baptist]] pastors, like I. M. Haldeman, or participants in the [[Plymouth Brethren]], like [[William C. Irvine (missionary)|William C. Irvine]] and [[Sydney Watson]].<ref>[[J. Gordon Melton]],"The counter-cult monitoring movement in historical perspective," in ''Challenging Religion: Essays in Honour of [[Eileen Barker]]'', edited by [[James A. Beckford]] & [[James T. Richardson]], Routledge, London, 2003, pp. 102–113.</ref> Watson wrote a series of [[Didacticism|didactic]] novels like ''Escaped from the Snare: [[Christian Science]]'',<ref>{{cite book |author=Sydney Watson |title=Escaped from the Snare: Christian Science |location=London |publisher=William Nicholson & Sons |date=1914}}</ref> ''Bewitched by [[Spiritualism (movement)|Spiritualism]]'',<ref>{{cite book |author=Sydney Watson |title=The Lure of a Soul (Bewitched by Spiritualism) |location=London |publisher=W. Nicholson & Sons |date=1915}}</ref> and ''The Gilded Lie ([[Bible Student movement|Millennial Dawnism]])'',<ref>{{cite book |author=Sydney Watson |title=The Gilded Lie (Millennial Dawnism) |location=London |publisher=W. Nicholson |date=1914}}</ref> as warnings of the dangers posed by cultic groups. Watson's use of fiction to counter the cults has been repeated by later novelists like [[Frank E. Peretti]].<ref>[[Frank E. Peretti]], ''[[This Present Darkness]]'', Westchester: Crossway,1986.</ref><ref>[[James R. Lewis (scholar)|James R. Lewis]], "Works of Darkness: Occult Fascination in the Novels of Frank Peretti" in ''Magical Religion and Modern Witchcraft'', James R. Lewis ed. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996, pp. 339–50.</ref>

The early twentieth-century apologists generally applied the words [[Heresy in Christianity|''heresy'']] and [[sect|''sects'']] to groups like the [[Christadelphians]], [[Mormons]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[Spiritualism (movement)|Spiritualists]], and [[Theosophy (Boehmian)|Theosophists]]. This was reflected in several chapters contributed to the multi-volume work released in 1915 ''The Fundamentals'', where apologists criticized the teachings of [[Charles Taze Russell]], [[Mary Baker Eddy]], the Mormons and Spiritualists.<ref>William G. Moorehead, 'Millennial Dawn A Counterfeit of Christianity', in ''The Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth'', Volume 7. Chicago: Testimony Publishing.</ref><ref>Maurice E. Wilson, 'Eddyism, Commonly Called "Christian Science", in ''The Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth'', Volume 9. Chicago: Testimony Publishing.</ref><ref>R. G. McNiece, 'Mormonism: Its Origin, Characteristics, and Doctrines', in ''The Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth'', Volume 8. Chicago: Testimony Publishing.</ref><ref>[[Algernon J. Pollock]], 'Modern Spiritualism Briefly Tested By Scripture', in ''The Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth'', Volume 10. Chicago: Testimony Publishing.</ref>

===Mid-twentieth-century apologists===
Since the 1940s, the approach of traditional Christians was to apply the meaning of ''cult'' such that it included those religious groups who use other scriptures beside the [[Bible]] or have teachings and practices deviating from traditional Christian teachings and practices. Some examples of sources (with published dates where known) that documented this approach are:
* ''The Missionary Faces Isms'', by John C. Mattes, pub. 1937 (Board of American Missions of the [[United Lutheran Church in America]]). {{OCLC|1982891}}
* ''Heresies Ancient and Modern'', by J. Oswald Sanders, pub. 1948 (Marshall Morgan & Scott, London/Zondervan, Grand Rapids). {{OCLC|1055434932}}
* {{cite book|last1=Sanders|first1=J. Oswald|title=Cults and isms|date=1973|publisher=Lakeland|location=London|isbn=978-0551004580|edition=Revised|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/cultsisms00sandrich}}
* {{cite book|last1=Baalen|first1=Jan Karel van|title=The chaos of cults; a study of present-day isms.|date=1962|publisher=Eerdmans Pub. Co.|location=Grand Rapids, Mich.|isbn=978-0802832788|edition=4th rev. and enl.}}
* ''Heresies Exposed'', by W. C. Irvine, pub. 1917, 1921, 1985 (Loizeaux Brothers). {{ISBN|978-0872134010}}
* ''Confusion of Tongues'', by C. W. Ferguson, pub. 1928 (Doran & Co). {{OCLC|903178756}}
* ''Isms New and Old'', by Julius Bodensieck. {{OCLC|6565177}}
* ''Some Latter-Day Religions'', by G. H. Combs. {{ISBN|9781150048920}}

One of the first prominent countercult apologists was [[Jan Karel van Baalen]] (1890–1968), an ordained minister in the [[Christian Reformed Church in North America]]. His book ''The Chaos of Cults'', which was first published in 1938, became a classic in the field as it was repeatedly revised and updated until 1962.<ref>J.K.van Baalen, ''The Chaos of Cults'', 4th rev. ed. Grand Rapids: William Eerdmans Publishing, 1962.</ref>

===Walter Ralston Martin===
Historically, one of the most important protagonists of the movement was [[Walter Ralston Martin|Walter Martin]] (1928–1989), whose numerous books include the 1955 ''The Rise of the Cults: An Introductory Guide to the Non-Christian Cults'' and the 1965 ''[[The Kingdom of the Cults|The Kingdom of the Cults: An Analysis of Major Cult Systems in the Present Christian Era]]'', which continues to be influential. He became well known in conservative Christian circles through a radio program, "The Bible Answer Man", currently hosted by [[Hank Hanegraaff]].

In ''The Rise of the Cults'', Martin gave the following definition of a cult:

<blockquote>By cultism we mean the adherence to doctrines which are pointedly contradictory to orthodox Christianity and which yet claim the distinction of either tracing their origin to orthodox sources or of being in essential harmony with those sources. Cultism, in short, is any major deviation from orthodox Christianity relative to the cardinal doctrines of the Christian faith.<ref>Walter R. Martin, ''The Rise of the Cults'', Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1955, pp. 11–2.</ref></blockquote>

As Martin's definition suggests, the countercult ministries concentrate on non-traditional groups that claim to be Christian, so chief targets have been, [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[Armstrongism]], [[Church of Christ, Scientist|Christian Science]] and the [[Unification Church]], but also smaller groups like the [[The New Church (Swedenborgian)|Swedenborgian Church]].<ref>Each of these movements are treated in separate chapters in Walter R. Martin, ''The Kingdom of the Cults'', rev. ed. Ravi Zacharias ed. Bloomington: Bethany House, 2003.</ref> He defines Christian cults as groups that follow the personal interpretation of an individual, rather than the understanding of the [[Bible]] accepted by [[Nicene Christianity]], providing the examples of [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], [[Christian Science]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], and the [[Unity Church]].<ref name="McManus1989">Michael J. McManus, "Eulogy for the godfather of the anti-cult movement", obituary in ''[[The Free Lance-Star]]'', Fredericksburg, VA, 26 August 1989, [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1298&dat=19890826&id=FuBLAAAAIBAJ&sjid=S4sDAAAAIBAJ&pg=1201,1411394 p. 8].</ref> Martin examines a large number of new religious movements; included are major groups such as [[Christian Science]], [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[Armstrongism]], [[Theosophy (Blavatskian)|Theosophy]], the [[Baháʼí Faith]], [[Unitarian Universalism]], [[Scientology]], as well as  minor groups including various [[New Age]] and groups based on [[Eastern religions]]. The beliefs of other world religions such as [[Islam]] and [[Buddhism]] are also discussed. He covers each group's history and teachings, and contrasts them with those of mainstream Christianity.<ref name="McManus1989" /><ref>"unapologetically hostile to young and developing spiritual trends" {{Cite journal |last=Dackson |first=Wendy |date=Summer 2004 |title=New Religious Movements in the 21st Century: Legal, Political, and Social Challenges in Global Perspective |journal=Journal of Church and State |volume=46 |issue=3 |page=663 |doi=10.1093/jcs/46.3.663}}</ref>

Various other conservative Christian leaders—among them [[John Ankerberg]] and [[Norman Geisler]]—have emphasized themes similar to Martin's.<ref>John Ankerberg & John Weldon, ''Cult Watch'', Eugene: Harvest House, 1991, pp. i–x.</ref><ref>Geisler & Rhodes, ''When Cultists Ask'', pp. 10–1.</ref> Perhaps more importantly, numerous other well-known conservative Christian leaders as well as many conservative pastors have accepted Martin's definition of a cult as well as his understanding of the groups to which he gave that label. [[Dave Breese]] summed up this kind of definition in these words:
<blockquote>A cult is a religious perversion. It is a belief and practice in the world of religion which calls for devotion to a religious view or leader centered in false doctrine. It is an organized heresy. A cult may take many forms but it is basically a religious movement which distorts or warps orthodox faith to the point where truth becomes perverted into a lie. A cult is impossible to define except against the absolute standard of the teaching of Holy Scripture.<ref>Dave Breese, ''Know the Marks of Cults'', Wheaton: Victor, 1975, 14.</ref></blockquote>

===Discernment blogging===
Kenne "Ken" Silva is said by other discernment bloggers to have pioneered online discernment ministry.<ref>Marsha West, "Online discernment ministries – the new lepers" http://bereanresearch.org/online-discernment-ministries-new-lepers/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200516021501/https://bereanresearch.org/online-discernment-ministries-new-lepers/ |date=16 May 2020 }}</ref> Ken was a [[Baptists|Baptist]] pastor who ran the discernment blog "Apprising". Silva wrote many blog articles about the [[Emergent Church|Emerging Church]], the [[Word of Faith|Word of Faith Movement]], the Jehovah's Witnesses, the [[Gay Christian Movement]], and many other groups. He started his blog in 2005 and wrote there until his death in 2014.<ref>Amy Spreeman, "Online Memorial for Pastor Ken Silva" http://standupforthetruth.com/2014/10/online-memorial-pastor-ken-silva-10614/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170322053822/http://standupforthetruth.com/2014/10/online-memorial-pastor-ken-silva-10614/ |date=22 March 2017 }}</ref>

Silva's work paved the way for other internet discernment ministries such as ''Pirate Christian Radio'', a group of blogs and podcasts founded by [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] pastor Chris Rosebrough in 2008,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.piratechristian.com/contributors/|title = Contributors}}</ref> and ''Pulpit & Pen'', a discernment blog founded by Baptist pastor and [[polemic]]ist J. D. Hall.{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}