Editing Chile (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of Chile}}

===Early history===
{{see also|Prehispanic history of Chile|Origin of the Mapuche}}
[[File:Momia cultura chinchorro año 3000 AC.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Chinchorro mummies]], the oldest of which are from around 5050 BCE]]
Stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the [[Monte Verde]] valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indigenous peoples]] settled in fertile valleys and coastal areas of what is present-day Chile. Settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, [[Cueva del Milodón]] and the [[Pali-Aike Crater]]'s [[lava tube]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/people-roamed-tip-south-america-18500-years-ago | title=People roamed tip of South America 18,500 years ago | work=Science News | date=26 December 2015 | access-date=26 December 2015 | author=Bower, Bruce | pages=10 | archive-date=10 May 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200510101040/https://www.sciencenews.org/article/people-roamed-tip-south-america-18500-years-ago | url-status=live }}</ref>

The Incas briefly extended their empire into what is now northern Chile, but the [[Mapuche]] (or Araucanians as they were known by the Spaniards) successfully resisted many attempts by the [[Inca Empire]] to subjugate them, despite their lack of state organization.<ref>{{cite book|title=Insight Guides: Chile|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nf8SnJ_ZJbkC&pg=PA27|access-date=14 July 2013|year=2002|publisher=Langenscheidt Publishing Group|isbn=978-981-234-890-6|page=27|archive-date=21 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240221111313/https://books.google.com/books?id=Nf8SnJ_ZJbkC&pg=PA27#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army. The result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the [[Battle of the Maule]] was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the [[Maule river]].<ref name="countrystudies"/>

===Spanish colonization===
{{main|Conquest of Chile|Colonial Chile}}
[[File:Captaincy General of Chile, 1775.svg|thumb|upright|[[Kingdom of Chile]] in 1775 according to Chilean historiography. The next year the [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata]] was created and the territories of the cities of [[Mendoza, Argentina|Mendoza]] and [[San Juan, Argentina|San Juan]] got transferred from Chile to the new entity.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Eyzaguirre, Jaime |title=Breve historia de las fronteras de Chile |date=1967 |publisher=Editorial Universitaria}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lagos Carmona |first1=Guillermo |title=Los Títulos Históricos: Historia de Las Fronteras de Chile |date=1985 |publisher=Andrés Bello |quote=(p. 197) We note that the Loa river is at 22 degrees and that Baleato, in 1793, indicated 21.5 degrees for the beginning of the Kingdom of Chile, with the Loa at its mouth in the Pacific. (...) (p. 540) According to the Map of Cano y Olmedilla, the limit of the Kingdom of Chile "(...) through the desert of Atacama (...) From here it turns to the S., S.E., S.E., and S., keeping in general this last course until near the 29° parallel, from where it takes a S.E. direction. SE. and S., generally keeping this last course until the vicinity of the 29° parallel, from where it takes a S.E. direction, skirting to the east the 'Province of Cuyo' which, of course, appears to be included in the territory of the Kingdom of Chile. In the latitude of 32°30' the line turns to the S.W. until reaching the Quinto river, which, as the legend says 'communicates by channels with the Saladillo in time of floods'. It follows the river down to the meridian 316°, counting to the E. of Tenerife, where it turns a stretch until it reaches the Hueuque-Leuvu river (or Barrancas river) at 371/2° latitude. From here it runs along the river for a stretch to the S.E., and then turns to the E. and falls into the Atlantic Sea in the vicinity of parallel 37° between Cape Lobos and Cape Corrientes", "a little north of the current Mar del Plata". (...) (p. 543) In this document it is seen that those of the province of Cuyo end to the south at the source of the Diamante River, and that from that point to the east, the dividing line goes to the point where the Quinto River crosses the road that goes from Santiago to Buenos Aires.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Amunátegui |first1=Miguel Luis |title=Títulos de la República de Chile a la soberanía i dominio de la Estremidad |date=1985 |url=https://libros.uchile.cl/files/presses/1/monographs/128/submission/proof/36/ |access-date=14 November 2022 |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112070737/https://libros.uchile.cl/files/presses/1/monographs/128/submission/proof/36/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Morla Vicuña |first1=Carlos |title=Estudio histórico sobre el descubrimiento y conquista de la Patagonia y de la Tierra del Fuego |publisher=F. A. Brockhaus |location=Leipzig |date=1903}}</ref>]]

In 1520, while attempting to circumnavigate the globe, [[Ferdinand Magellan]] discovered the southern passage now named after him (the [[Strait of Magellan]]) thus becoming the first European to set foot on what is now Chile. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of [[Conquistador|Spanish conquistadors]], who came from [[Peru]] in 1535 seeking gold. The Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through [[slash-and-burn]] agriculture and hunting.<ref name="countrystudies"/>

The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by [[Pedro de Valdivia]], one of [[Francisco Pizarro]]'s lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the extensive gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chile's central valley, and Chile became part of the [[Spanish Empire]].<ref name="countrystudies"/>

Conquest took place gradually, and the Europeans suffered repeated setbacks. A massive [[Mapuche]] insurrection that began in 1553 resulted in Valdivia's death and the destruction of many of the colony's principal settlements. Subsequent major insurrections took place in 1598 and in 1655. Each time the Mapuche and other native groups revolted, the southern border of the colony was driven northward. The abolition of [[slavery]] by the Spanish crown in 1683 was done in recognition that enslaving the Mapuche intensified resistance rather than cowing them into submission. Despite royal prohibitions, relations remained strained from continual colonialist interference.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/storiadellaguer00caivgoog|title=Storia della guerra d'America fra Chilì, il Perù e la Bolivia|first=Tommaso |last=Caivano|date=1 April 1882|place=Torino|publisher =Ermanno Loescher|via=Internet Archive|language=it}}</ref>{{verify source|date=August 2024|reason="page 66" was deleted from this citation by a user of the ReFill script at one point, but page 66 of this source does not seem to support this claim. the reference previously pointed to a djvu of the source, so pagination may have differed, but the djvu is no longer available via archive.org}}

Cut off to the north by desert, to the south by the Mapuche, to the east by the Andes Mountains, and to the west by the ocean, Chile became one of the most centralized, homogeneous territories in Spanish America. Serving as a sort of frontier [[garrison]], the colony found itself with the mission of forestalling encroachment by both the Mapuche and Spain's European enemies, especially the [[Kingdom of England|English]] and the [[Dutch Republic|Dutch]]. [[Buccaneer]]s and [[Piracy|pirates]] menaced the colony in addition to the Mapuche, as was shown by [[Francis Drake|Sir Francis Drake]]'s 1578 raid on Valparaíso, the colony's principal port. Chile hosted one of the largest standing armies in the Americas, making it one of the most militarized of the Spanish possessions, as well as a [[Real Situado|drain on the treasury of the Viceroyalty of Peru]].<ref name="hudson"/>
[[Image:Fundacion de Santiago.jpg|thumb|left|[[Pedro Lira]]'s 1888 painting of the founding of [[Santiago]] by [[Pedro de Valdivia]] at [[Santa Lucía Hill|Huelén Hill]]]]

The first general census was conducted by the government of [[Agustín de Jáuregui]] between 1777 and 1778; it indicated that the population consisted of 259,646 inhabitants: 73.5% of [[White Latin American|European descent]], 7.9% [[mestizo]]s, 8.6% [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous peoples]] and 9.8% blacks. Francisco Hurtado, Governor of the province of [[Chiloé Province|Chiloé]], conducted a census in 1784 and found the population consisted of 26,703 inhabitants, 64.4% of whom were whites and 33.5% of whom were natives. The Diocese of [[Concepción, Chile|Concepción]] conducted a census in areas south of the [[Maule river]] in 1812, but did not include the indigenous population or the inhabitants of the province of Chiloé. The population is estimated at 210,567, 86.1% of whom were [[Spanish Chilean|Spanish]] or of European descent, 10% of whom were indigenous and 3.7% of whom were mestizos, blacks and [[mulatto]]s.<ref>{{Cite book | url= https://www.memoriachilena.gob.cl/602/w3-article-8952.html | page= 370 | via= Biblioteca Nacional de Chile | last= Silva Castro | first= Raúl | title= Censo de 1813 | publisher= Imprenta Chile | place= Santiago | date= 1953 | archive-date= 18 August 2024 | access-date= 18 August 2024 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240818150256/https://www.memoriachilena.gob.cl/602/w3-article-8952.html | url-status= live }}</ref>

A 2021 study by [[Jörg Baten|Baten]] and Llorca-Jaña shows that regions with a relatively high share of North European migrants developed faster in terms of [[numeracy]], even if the overall number of migrants was small. This effect might be related to [[Externality|externalities]]: the surrounding population adopted a similar behavior as the small non-European immigrant group, and new schools were created. Ironically, there might have been positive [[spillover effects]] from the educational investment made by migrants, at the same time numeracy might have been reduced by the greater inequality in these regions. However, the positive effects of immigration were apparently stronger.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baten|first1=Joerg|last2=Llorca-Jaña|first2=Manuel|date=2021|title=Inequality, Low-Intensity Immigration and Human Capital Formation in the Regions of Chile, 1820–1939|journal=Economics and Human Biology|volume=43|page=101030|doi=10.1016/j.ehb.2021.101030|pmid=34171763|s2cid=219382958|url=https://www.cesifo.org/DocDL/cesifo1_wp8177.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.cesifo.org/DocDL/cesifo1_wp8177.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live|issn=1570-677X}}</ref>

===Independence and nation building===
{{see also|Chilean War of Independence|War of the Pacific|Argentine–Chilean naval arms race}}
[[File:Ejercito Libertador cruce de Cordillera de los andes.jpg|thumb|Generals [[José de San Martín]] (left) and [[Bernardo O'Higgins]] (right) during the [[crossing of the Andes]]]]

In 1808, [[Napoleon I|Napoleon]]'s enthronement of his brother [[Joseph Bonaparte|Joseph]] as the [[Spanish monarchy|Spanish King]] precipitated the drive by Chile for [[Chilean War of Independence|independence from Spain]]. A national [[Junta (governing body)|junta]] in the name of [[Ferdinand VII of Spain|Ferdinand]] – heir to the deposed king – was formed on 18 September 1810. The [[Government Junta of Chile (1810)|Government Junta of Chile]] proclaimed an autonomous government for Chile within the Spanish monarchy (in memory of this day, Chile celebrates its [[Fiestas Patrias (Chile)|National Day]] on 18 September each year).

After these events, a movement for total independence, under the command of [[José Miguel Carrera]] (one of the most renowned patriots) and his two brothers Juan José and [[Luis Carrera]], soon gained a wider following. Spanish attempts to re-impose arbitrary rule during what was called the [[Reconquista (Spanish America)|Reconquista]] led to a prolonged struggle, including infighting from [[Bernardo O'Higgins]], who challenged Carrera's leadership.

Intermittent warfare continued until 1817. With Carrera in prison in Argentina, O'Higgins and anti-Carrera cohort [[José de San Martín]], hero of the [[Argentine War of Independence]], led [[Army of the Andes|an army]] that [[Crossing of the Andes|crossed the Andes]] into Chile and defeated the royalists. On 12 February 1818, [[Chilean Declaration of Independence|Chile was proclaimed an independent republic]]. The political revolt brought little social change, however, and 19th-century Chilean society preserved the essence of the stratified colonial social structure, which was greatly influenced by family politics and the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic Church]]. A strong presidency eventually emerged, but wealthy landowners remained powerful.<ref name="countrystudies"/> Bernardo O'Higgins once planned to expand Chile by liberating the [[Philippines]] from Spain and incorporating the islands. In this regard he tasked the Scottish naval officer, Lord Thomas Cochrane, in a letter dated 12 November 1821, expressing his plan to conquer [[Guayaquil]], the [[Galapagos Islands]], and the [[Chile–Philippines relations|Philippines]]. There were preparations, but the plan did not push through because O'Higgins was exiled.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Jg5cEAAAQBAJ Intercolonial Intimacies: Relinking Latin/o America to the Philippines. 1898-1964 By Paula C. Park] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101151055/https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=Jg5cEAAAQBAJ |date=1 November 2022 }} (INTRODUCTION: Residual Intercolonial Intimacies across the "Hispanic" Pacific)</ref>
[[File:Combate Naval Iquique-Thomas Somerscales.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Iquique]] on 21 May 1879. The victory of Chile in the [[War of the Pacific]] allowed its expansion into new territories.]]
Chile slowly started to expand its influence and to establish its borders. By the Tantauco Treaty, the archipelago of [[Chiloé]] was incorporated in 1826. The economy began to boom due to the discovery of silver ore in Chañarcillo, and the growing trade of the port of Valparaíso, which led to conflict over maritime supremacy in the Pacific with Peru. At the same time, attempts were made to strengthen sovereignty in southern Chile intensifying [[Occupation of Araucanía|penetration into Araucanía]] and [[German colonization of Valdivia, Osorno and Llanquihue|colonizing Llanquihue with German immigrants]] in 1848. Through the founding of [[Fort Bulnes]] by the [[Schooner Ancud]] under the command of [[John Williams Wilson]], the [[Magallanes Region]] [[Chilean colonization of the Strait of Magellan|started to be controlled by country in 1843]], while the [[Antofagasta Region]], at the time in [[Atacama Desert border dispute|dispute with Bolivia]], began to fill with people.

After the [[Chilean Civil War of 1829–1830]] in which the conservatives won, under the [[Joaquín Prieto]] Administration, the [[Chilean Constitution of 1833]] was written and put into effect with high influence from the triple minister [[Diego Portales]]. Two other civil wars happened in Chile in the 1850s, one in [[1851 Chilean revolution|1851]] and the other one in [[1859 Chilean revolution|1859]].

[[File:Territorial losses of the Republic of Chile de jure.svg|300px|thumb|Territorial losses of the Republic of Chile de jure (by law) according to Chilean historiography<ref name=Eyzaguirre>{{cite book |author1=Eyzaguirre, Jaime |title=Breve historia de las fronteras de Chile |date=1967 |publisher=Editorial Universitaria |language= es}}</ref>]]
Toward the end of the 19th century, the government in Santiago consolidated its position in the south by the [[Occupation of Araucanía]]. The [[Boundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina]] confirmed Chilean sovereignty over the [[Strait of Magellan]] but also made the country to renounce to its claims in the rest of East Patagonia after a [[East Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego and Strait of Magellan Dispute|dispute that started in 1842]].<ref name=PatagoniaAustral>{{cite book|author=Mateo Martinic Beros|title=Presencia de Chile en la Patagonia austral 1843 – 1879|date=1971|publisher=Editorial Andrés Bello|url=https://www.memoriachilena.gob.cl/602/w3-article-10386.html|access-date=December 8, 2022|language=es|archive-date=31 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331010856/https://www.memoriachilena.gob.cl/602/w3-article-10386.html|url-status=live}}</ref> As a result of the [[War of the Pacific]] with Peru and Bolivia (1879–83), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third, eliminating Bolivia's access to the Pacific, and acquired valuable [[Caliche (mineral)#Chilean caliche|nitrate]] deposits, the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence. Chile had joined the stand as one of the high-income countries in South America by 1870.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present.|last1= Baten |first1= Jörg |author-link= Jörg Baten |date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=137|isbn=9781107507180}}</ref>

On 9 September 1888, Chile took possession of [[Easter Island]] by the signing of a mutual will agreement with the local king, thanks to the efforts of the Bishop of Tahiti, Monsignor José María Verdier since the island was constantly attacked by slave merchants. The naval officer [[Policarpo Toro]] represented the Chilean Government and [[Atamu Tekena]] was the head of the Council of Rapanui. The Rapa Nui elders ceded sovereignty, without renouncing their titles as chiefs, the ownership of their lands, the validity of their culture and traditions on equal terms. The Rapa Nui sold nothing and were integrated in equal conditions into Chile.<ref name=historia>{{Cite web |url=http://www.soberaniachile.cl/historia_de_la_incorporacion_y_las_controversias_de_la_isla_de_pascua.html |title=Historia de la Isla de Pascua: Su Incorporación y Su Conflicto Con La Williamson & Balfour. Daños Patrimoniales, Pretensiones Internacionales e Independentismos |access-date=26 January 2024 |archive-date=21 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321015938/http://www.soberaniachile.cl/historia_de_la_incorporacion_y_las_controversias_de_la_isla_de_pascua.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[1891 Chilean Civil War]] brought about a redistribution of power between the President and Congress, and Chile established a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]] style democracy. However, the Civil War had also been a contest between those who favored the development of local industries and powerful Chilean banking interests, particularly the House of Edwards which had strong ties to foreign investors. Soon after, the country engaged in a [[Argentine–Chilean naval arms race|vastly expensive naval arms race]] with [[Argentina]] amid escalating geopolitical competition and the [[Puna de Atacama dispute]].

The [[War of the Pacific]] (1879–1883) against Peru and Bolivia resulted in Chile annexing resource-rich territory from both countries and further consolidating its status as a regional power. It subsequently emerged as a leading naval power in the Americas, even sending a ship to protest United States involvement in the [[Panama crisis of 1885]]. Chile potentially threatened U.S. hegemony in the Western Hemisphere, with the two countries almost going to war during the [[Baltimore crisis]] in 1891.<ref name="sater">William Sater, ''Chile and the United States: Empires in Conflict'', Athens, GA; University of Georgia Press, {{ISBN|0-8203-1249-5}} p.51</ref>

===20th century===
{{see also|Parliamentary Era in Chile|1960 Valdivia earthquake|South American dreadnought race}}
[[File:Chilean battleship Almirante Latorre.jpg|thumb|left|Chile's ''Almirante Latorre'' [[dreadnought]] in 1921]]

The early 20th century saw Chile fully consolidate its territory and resolve long-running diplomatic and territorial disputes. Its current borders with Argentina were finalized [[1902 Arbitral award of the Andes between Argentina and Chile|through British arbitration]] in 1902 and a bilateral settlement of the [[Puna de Atacama dispute]] the following year. In 1904, Chile and Bolivia signed a [[Treaty of Peace and Friendship (1904)|Treaty of Peace and Friendship]] which clarified the border between both countries.

The Chilean economy partially degenerated into a system protecting the interests of a ruling [[oligarchy]]. By the 1920s, the emerging middle and working classes were powerful enough to elect a reformist president, [[Arturo Alessandri]], whose program was frustrated by a conservative congress. In the 1920s, [[Marxism|Marxist]] groups with strong popular support arose.<ref name="countrystudies"/>

A military coup led by General [[Luis Altamirano]] in 1924 set off a period of political instability that lasted until 1932. Of the ten governments that held power in that period, the longest lasting was that of General [[Carlos Ibáñez del Campo]], who briefly ruled as [[de facto]] dictator in 1925 and then again between 1927 and 1931. These authoritarian governments were comparatively less harsh and corrupt than counterparts elsewhere in Latin America.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Authoritarianism in Latin America since independence|last=Fowler|first=Will|year=1996|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=University of Virginia|isbn=0-313-29843-2|pages=30–96}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Frazier|first=Lessie Jo|title=Salt in the Sand: Memory, Violence, and the Nation-State in Chile, 1890 to the Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gQU-GYGeVSEC&pg=PA163|access-date=14 July 2013|date=17 July 2007|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-4003-4|pages=163–184|archive-date=29 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129020445/https://books.google.com/books?id=gQU-GYGeVSEC&pg=PA163#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

By relinquishing power to a democratically elected successor, Ibáñez del Campo retained the respect of a large enough segment of the population to remain a viable politician for more than thirty years, in spite of the vague and shifting nature of his ideology. When constitutional rule was restored in 1932, a strong middle-class party, the Radicals, emerged. It became the key force in coalition governments for the next 20 years. During the period of [[Radical Party (Chile)|Radical Party]] dominance (1932–52), the state increased its role in the economy. In 1952, voters returned Ibáñez del Campo to office for another six years. [[Jorge Alessandri]] succeeded Ibáñez del Campo in 1958, bringing Chilean conservatism back into power democratically for another term.

The [[1964 Chilean presidential election|1964 presidential election]] of [[Christian Democrat Party of Chile|Christian Democrat]] [[Eduardo Frei Montalva]] by an [[Majority|absolute majority]] initiated a period of major reform. Under the slogan "Revolution in Liberty", the Frei administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs, particularly in education, housing, and [[agrarian reform]], including rural unionization of agricultural workers. By 1967, however, Frei encountered increasing opposition from leftists, who charged that his reforms were inadequate, and from conservatives, who found them excessive. At the end of his term, Frei had not fully achieved his party's ambitious goals.<ref name="countrystudies">{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/chile/85.htm|title=Development and Breakdown of Democracy, 1830–1973|work=Country Studies|publisher=Library of Congress|date=31 March 1994|access-date=21 April 2009|archive-date=9 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709014719/http://countrystudies.us/chile/85.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Salvador Allende Gossens-.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Salvador Allende]]]]

In the 1970 election, Senator [[Salvador Allende]] of the [[Socialist Party of Chile]] (then part of the "[[Popular Unity (Chile)|Popular Unity]]" coalition which included the Communists, Radicals, Social-Democrats, dissident Christian Democrats, the Popular Unitary Action Movement, and the Independent Popular Action),<ref name="countrystudies"/> achieved a partial majority in a [[plurality (voting)|plurality]] of votes in a three-way contest, followed by candidates Radomiro Tomic for the Christian Democrat Party and Jorge Alessandri for the Conservative Party. Allende was not elected with an absolute majority, receiving fewer than 35% of the votes.

The [[National Congress of Chile|Chilean Congress]] conducted a runoff vote between the leading candidates, Allende and former president Jorge Alessandri, and, keeping with tradition, chose Allende by a vote of 153 to 35. Frei refused to form an alliance with Alessandri to oppose Allende, on the grounds that the Christian Democrats were a workers' party and could not make common cause with the right wing.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mares|first=David|author2=Francisco Rojas Aravena|title=The United States and Chile: Coming in from the Cold|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Y3EWkKZsYcC&pg=PA145|access-date=14 July 2013|year=2001|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-93125-0|page=145|archive-date=29 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129020509/https://books.google.com/books?id=0Y3EWkKZsYcC&pg=PA145|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Trento|first=Joseph J.|title=The Secret History of the CIA|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3uPBM7z_62gC&pg=PA560|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319065032/http://books.google.com/books?id=3uPBM7z_62gC&pg=PA560|url-status=dead|archive-date=19 March 2015|access-date=14 July 2013|year=2005|publisher=Carroll & Graf Publishers|isbn=978-0-7867-1500-8|page=560}}</ref>

An [[economic depression]] that began in 1972 was exacerbated by [[capital flight]], plummeting private investment, and withdrawal of bank deposits in response to Allende's socialist program. Production fell and unemployment rose. Allende adopted measures including price freezes, wage increases, and tax reforms, to increase consumer spending and redistribute income downward.<ref>{{cite book|author=Lois Hecht Oppenheim|title=Politics in Chile: Socialism, Authoritarianism, and Market Democracy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=99ZLX52z_noC&pg=PA52|access-date=14 July 2013|year=2007|publisher=Westview Press|isbn=978-0-7867-3426-9|page=52|archive-date=29 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129020433/https://books.google.com/books?id=99ZLX52z_noC&pg=PA52#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Joint public-private [[public works]] projects helped reduce unemployment.<ref name="De Vylder">{{cite book|last=De Vylder|first=Stefan|title=Allende's Chile: The Political Economy of the Rise and Fall of the Unidad Popular|date=5 March 2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-10757-0}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=September 2010}} Much of the banking sector was [[nationalization|nationalized]]. Many enterprises within the [[Copper#Production|copper]], coal, iron, [[Caliche (mineral)#Chilean caliche|nitrate]], and steel industries were [[Nationalization#Expropriation|expropriated]], nationalized, or subjected to state intervention. Industrial output increased sharply and unemployment fell during the Allende administration's first year.<ref name="De Vylder"/>

Allende's program included advancement of workers' interests,<ref name="De Vylder"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://grace.evergreen.edu/~arunc/texts/chile/torre/Allende.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080107150857/http://grace.evergreen.edu/~arunc/texts/chile/torre/Allende.html|archive-date=7 January 2008 |title=Allende wins the elections: first coup attempt |publisher=Grace.evergreen.edu |access-date=17 December 2009}}</ref> replacing the judicial system with "socialist legality",<ref name=friedman368>{{cite book|last=Friedman|first=Norman|title=The Fifty-Year War: Conflict and Strategy in the Cold War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0CIXLdxhQMAC&pg=PA367|access-date=14 July 2013|date=1 March 2007|publisher=Naval Institute Press|isbn=978-1-59114-287-4|pages=367–368|archive-date=29 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129020229/https://books.google.com/books?id=0CIXLdxhQMAC&pg=PA367|url-status=live}}</ref> nationalization of banks and forcing others to bankruptcy,<ref name=friedman368/> and strengthening "popular militias" known as MIR.<ref name=friedman368/> Started under former President Frei, the Popular Unity platform also called for nationalization of Chile's major copper mines in the form of a constitutional amendment. The measure was passed unanimously by Congress. As a result,<ref>{{cite book|last=Qureshi|first=Lubna Z.|title=Nixon, Kissinger, and Allende: U.S. Involvement in the 1973 Coup in Chile|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=alISgQdNY4kC&pg=PA86|access-date=14 July 2013|year=2009|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-0-7391-2655-4|pages=86–97|archive-date=29 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129020042/https://books.google.com/books?id=alISgQdNY4kC&pg=PA86#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> the [[Richard Nixon]] administration [[United States intervention in Chile|organized and inserted secret operatives]] in Chile, in order to swiftly destabilize Allende's government.<ref>{{cite web | title = Report on CIA Chilean Task Force activities | work = Chile and the United States: Declassified Documents relating to the Military Coup, 1970–1976 | publisher = The National Security Archive: Electronic Briefing Books (George Washington University) | url = http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/ch01-01.htm | access-date = 11 March 2010 | archive-date = 11 February 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100211203442/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/ch01-01.htm | url-status = live }}</ref> In addition, US financial pressure restricted international economic credit to Chile.<ref name="fas.org">{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/irp/ops/policy/church-chile.htm |title=Covert Action In Chile 1963–1973, Staff Report Of The Select Committee To Study Governmental Operations With Respect To Intelligence Activities |publisher=Federation of American Scientists |access-date=17 December 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091003144646/http://www.fas.org/irp/ops/policy/church-chile.htm |archive-date=3 October 2009}}</ref>

The economic problems were also exacerbated by Allende's public spending, financed mostly through printing money, and by poor credit ratings given by commercial banks.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,879153,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101022175928/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,879153,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=22 October 2010|title=Tightening the Belt|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date = 7 August 1972 }}</ref> Simultaneously, opposition media, politicians, business guilds and other organizations helped to accelerate a campaign of domestic political and economical destabilization, some of which was backed by the United States.<ref name="fas.org"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/chile/doc/hinchey.html |title=Equipo Nizkor – CIA Activities in Chile – September 18, 2000 |publisher=Derechos.org |access-date=17 December 2009 |archive-date=13 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513083911/http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/chile/doc/hinchey.html |url-status=live }}</ref> By early 1973, inflation was out of control. On 26 May 1973, Chile's Supreme Court, which was opposed to Allende's government, unanimously denounced Allende's ''disruption of the legality of the nation''. Although illegal under the Chilean constitution, the court supported and strengthened Pinochet's soon-to-be seizure of power.<ref name=friedman368/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.law.yale.edu/documents/pdf/rightdegree_independence(5).pdf |title=Transition to Democracy in Latin America: The Role of the judiciary |publisher=Yale University |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130819213445/http://www.law.yale.edu/documents/pdf/rightdegree_independence%285%29.pdf |archive-date=19 August 2013}}</ref>

====Pinochet era (1973–1990)====
{{Main|Military government of Chile (1973–90)|Miracle of Chile|Beagle conflict}}
[[File:Golpe de Estado 1973.jpg|thumb|left|[[Fighter aircraft|Fighter jets]] bombing the Presidential Palace of ''La Moneda'' during the [[Chilean coup of 1973]]]]
On 11 September 1973, a [[Chilean coup of 1973|military coup]] overthrew Allende, who apparently committed suicide as the armed forces bombarded the [[La Moneda Palace|presidential palace]].<ref>{{Cite book|first=Óscar|last=Soto|title=El último día de Salvador Allende|year=1999|publisher=Aguilar|isbn=978-956-239-084-2}}{{page needed|date=July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|first=Eugeno|last=Ahumada|title=Chile: La memoria prohibida}}{{page needed|date=July 2013}}</ref> The degree to which [[U.S. intervention in Chile#1973 coup|the United States was involved in the coup]] remains debated; after Allende was overthrown, U.S. Secretary of State [[Henry Kissinger]] told [[President of the United States|U.S. president]] [[Richard Nixon]] that the United States had "helped" the coup indirectly.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB437/ |title=Kissinger and Chile: the Declassified Record |publisher=The National Security Archive |date=16 September 2013 |access-date=16 September 2013 |archive-date=17 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130917045957/http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB437/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Historian Sebastián Hurtado contends there is no documentary evidence to support that the U.S. government was actively involved in the coordination and execution the coup; however, upon Allende's election in 1970, Kissinger had stated "I don't see why we need to stand by and watch a country go Communist due to the irresponsibility of its own people",<ref name="k745">{{cite web | last=Lewis | first=Anthony | title=The Kissinger Doctrine | website=The New York Times | date=1975-02-27 | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1975/02/27/archives/the-kissinger-doctrine.html | access-date=2024-05-08 | archive-date=12 September 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220912084418/https://www.nytimes.com/1975/02/27/archives/the-kissinger-doctrine.html | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Hurtado" /> while Nixon had expressed that the Allende government should not be consolidated and acted decisively to destabilize his government.<ref name="Hurtado">{{cite web |author1=Juan Paulo Iglesias |title=Sebastián Hurtado, historiador: "Estados Unidos no tuvo participación directa en el Golpe, pero sí quería que Allende cayera" |url=https://www.latercera.com/la-tercera-sabado/noticia/sebastian-hurtado-historiador-estados-unidos-no-tuvo-participacion-directa-en-el-golpe-pero-si-queria-que-allende-cayera/3UXITS4IUNB3RPPB57ILMYDO64/ |publisher=La Tercera |access-date=12 January 2025 |language=es |date=25 August 2023 |archive-date=12 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240912221446/https://www.latercera.com/la-tercera-sabado/noticia/sebastian-hurtado-historiador-estados-unidos-no-tuvo-participacion-directa-en-el-golpe-pero-si-queria-que-allende-cayera/3UXITS4IUNB3RPPB57ILMYDO64/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hurtado |first1=Sebastián |title=Chile y Estados Unidos, 1964-1973. Una nueva mirada |journal=Nuevo Mundo Mundos Nuevos |date=10 October 2016 |doi=10.4000/nuevomundo.69698 |language=es|doi-access=free }}</ref>

A military junta, led by General [[Augusto Pinochet]], took control of the country. His regime was marked by widespread [[Human rights violations in Pinochet's Chile|human rights violation]]s. Chile initiated and actively participated in [[Operation Condor]], a U.S.-backed campaign to suppress leftists and their sympathizes.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Dinges |first1=John |title=Operation Condor |url=http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/chile/operation-condor.htm |website=latinamericanstudies.org |publisher=Columbia University |access-date=6 July 2018 |archive-date=22 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180722031734/http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/chile/operation-condor.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> In October 1973, at least 72 people were murdered by the [[Caravan of Death]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/850932.stm|title=Flashback: Caravan of Death|work=BBC|date=25 July 2000|access-date=11 March 2008|archive-date=26 February 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080226211503/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/850932.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> According to the [[Rettig Report]] and [[Valech Commission]], during the Pinochet regime's 15-year rule, at least 2,115 were killed,<ref>{{cite web |author=Ministerio del Interior |url=http://www.ddhh.gov.cl/ddhh_rettig.html |title=Ministerio del Interior, Programa de Derechos Humanos – ddhh_rettig |publisher=Ddhh.gov.cl |date=3 August 1999 |access-date=17 December 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091223174254/http://www.ddhh.gov.cl/ddhh_rettig.html |archive-date=23 December 2009}}</ref> and at least 27,265<ref name=sintesis>{{cite web|url=http://www.comisionprisionpoliticaytortura.cl/filesapp/Sintesis.pdf |title=Sintesis Ok |access-date=17 December 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070727031254/http://www.comisionprisionpoliticaytortura.cl/filesapp/Sintesis.pdf |archive-date=27 July 2007 }}</ref> were tortured (including 88 children younger than 12 years old);<ref name=sintesis/> many were detained, tortured, and executed at the national stadium. In 2011, Chile recognized an additional 9,800 victims, bringing the total number killed, tortured or imprisoned for political reasons to 40,018.<ref>Eva Vergara (18 August 2015). [https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/08/18/chile-recognizes-9800-more-pinochet-victims_n_930754.html Chile Recognizes 9,800 More Pinochet Victims] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231220056/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/08/18/chile-recognizes-9800-more-pinochet-victims_n_930754.html |date=31 December 2015 }}. ''The Associated Press'' via ''The Huffington Post.'' Retrieved 25 August 2015.</ref> Among the victims was internationally known poet-singer [[Víctor Jara]]. 
[[File:Augusto Pinochet foto oficial coloreada.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Augusto Pinochet]]]]

A new Constitution was approved by a controversial [[plebiscite]] on 11 September 1980, and General Pinochet became president of the republic for an eight-year term. After Pinochet obtained rule of the country, several hundred committed Chilean revolutionaries joined the [[Sandinista]] army in [[Nicaragua]], guerrilla forces in [[Argentina]] or training camps in [[Cuba]], Eastern Europe and Northern Africa.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Pamela Constable |author-link=Pamela Constable |author2=Arturo Valenzuela |author2-link=Arturo Valenzuela |title=A Nation of Enemies: Chile Under Pinochet|year=1993|publisher=W W Norton & Company Incorporated|isbn=978-0-393-30985-0|page=150|url=https://archive.org/details/nationofenemiesc00cons}}</ref>

In the late 1980s, largely as a result of events such as the 1982 economic collapse<ref>{{cite book|last1=Klein|first1=Naomi|author-link=Naomi Klein|title=The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PwHUAq5LPOQC&pg=PA85|access-date=14 July 2013|date=1 April 2010|publisher=Henry Holt and Company (2007)|isbn=978-1-4299-1948-7|page=85|archive-date=29 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129020106/https://books.google.com/books?id=PwHUAq5LPOQC&pg=PA85#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> and mass [[civil resistance]] in 1983–88, the government gradually permitted greater freedom of assembly, [[Freedom of speech|speech]], and association, to include trade union and political activity.<ref>{{cite book|last=Huneeus|first=Carlos|author-link=Carlos Huneeus|editor1=Adam Roberts|editor2=Timothy Garton Ash|title=Civil Resistance and Power Politics:The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zD_S8Y2WbRsC&pg=PT168|access-date=14 July 2013|date=3 September 2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-161917-5|pages=197–212|chapter=Political Mass Mobilization against Authoritarian Rule: Pinochet's Chile, 1983–88|archive-date=29 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129020252/https://books.google.com/books?id=zD_S8Y2WbRsC&pg=PT168#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> The government launched market-oriented reforms with [[Hernán Büchi]] as Minister of Finance. Chile moved toward a [[free market economy]] that saw an increase in domestic and foreign private investment, although the [[Copper#Production|copper]] industry and other important mineral resources were not opened to competition. In a [[1988 Chilean national plebiscite|plebiscite]] on 5 October 1988, Pinochet was denied a second eight-year term as president (56% against 44%). Chileans elected a new president and the majority of members of a [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] congress on 14 December 1989. Christian Democrat [[Patricio Aylwin]], the candidate of a coalition of 17 political parties called the ''[[Concertación]]'', received an absolute majority of votes (55%).<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/12/16/world/man-in-the-news-patricio-aylwin-a-moderate-leads-chile.html|title=Man in the News: Patricio Aylwin; A Moderate Leads Chile|work=The New York Times|first=Shirley|last=Christian|date=16 December 1989|access-date=28 July 2018|archive-date=29 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180729012944/https://www.nytimes.com/1989/12/16/world/man-in-the-news-patricio-aylwin-a-moderate-leads-chile.html|url-status=live}}</ref> President Aylwin served from 1990 to 1994, in what was considered a transition period.

===21st century===
{{See also|2010 Chile earthquake|2019–20 Chilean protests}}
[[File:Izamiento de la Gran Bandera Nacional - Presidentes de Chile.jpg|thumb|left|The first five presidents of Chile since its [[Transition to democracy]] (1990–2022), celebrating the [[Bicentennial of Chile]]]]

In December 1993, Christian Democrat [[Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle]], the son of previous president Eduardo Frei Montalva, led the Concertación coalition to victory with an absolute majority of votes (58%).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1P2-8257609.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080526090105/http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1P2-8257609.html|archive-date=26 May 2008 |title=Chile elects new leader Late president's son wins big |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia.com |date=12 December 1993 |access-date=14 July 2013}}</ref> Frei Ruiz-Tagle was succeeded in 2000 by Socialist [[Ricardo Lagos]], who won the presidency in an unprecedented [[1999–2000 Chilean presidential election|runoff election]] against [[Joaquín Lavín]] of the rightist [[Alliance for Chile]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/americas/01/17/chile.elex.01/ |title=Moderate socialist Lagos wins Chilean presidential election |work=CNN|date=16 January 2000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506162601/http://archives.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/americas/01/17/chile.elex.01/ |archive-date=6 May 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In January 2006, Chileans elected their first female president, [[Michelle Bachelet Jeria]], of the Socialist Party, defeating [[Sebastián Piñera]], of the [[National Renewal (Chile)|National Renewal]] party, extending the ''Concertación'' governance for another four years.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna10819903|title=Chile elects first woman president|work=NBC News|date=12 January 2006|access-date=10 November 2019|archive-date=9 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109023348/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/10819903/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/03/11/AR2006031101381.html|title=Bachelet Sworn in As Chile's President|newspaper=The Washington Post|first=Monte|last=Reel|date=12 March 2006|access-date=22 August 2017|archive-date=1 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701225835/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/03/11/AR2006031101381.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In January 2010, Chileans [[2009–10 Chilean presidential election|elected]] [[Sebastián Piñera]] as the first rightist President in 20 years, defeating former President [[Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle]] of the ''Concertación'', for a four-year term succeeding Bachelet. Due to term limits, [[Sebastián Piñera]] did not stand for re-election in 2013, and his term expired in March 2014 resulting in [[Michelle Bachelet]] returning to office.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-26528923 |title=Michelle Bachelet sworn in as Chile's president |work=BBC News |date=11 March 2014 |access-date=12 August 2021 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140312035407/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-26528923 |archive-date=12 March 2014 }}</ref> Sebastián Piñera succeeded Bachelet again in 2018 as the [[President of Chile]] after winning the December 2017 presidential [[2017 Chilean general election|election]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-42388019 |title=Chile election: Conservative Piñera elected president |work=BBC News |date=18 December 2017 |access-date=12 August 2021 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171218103345/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-42388019 |archive-date=18 December 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/pinera-conservative-billionaire-sworn-president-chile-183054108.html?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAAC6_pBevRC0GpV00u6W8P1NWhHqxCXKFRdRMnzk5fsa |title=Pinera, a conservative billionaire, is sworn in as president of Chile |work=Yahoo! News |agency=Agence France Presse |date=11 March 2018 |access-date=12 August 2021 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210801211945/https://www.yahoo.com/news/pinera-conservative-billionaire-sworn-president-chile-183054108.html?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAAC6_pBevRC0GpV00u6W8P1NWhHqxCXKFRdRMnzk5fsa |archive-date=1 August 2021 }}</ref>

On 27 February 2010, Chile was struck by an 8.8 {{M|w|link=y}} [[2010 Chile earthquake|earthquake]], the fifth largest ever recorded at the time. More than 500 people died (most from the ensuing [[tsunami]]) and over a million people lost their homes. The earthquake was also followed by multiple aftershocks.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.australia-times.com.au/world/article.php?id=501|title=US ready to help Chile: Obama|work=The Australia Times|access-date=3 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427081917/http://www.australia-times.com.au/world/article.php?id=501|archive-date=27 April 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> Initial damage estimates were in the range of US$15–30 billion, around 10% to 15% of Chile's real gross domestic product.<ref>[http://www.contractmagazine.com/contract/content_display/design/news/e3i128fcc3d3e64156a013dfae605b73a5b More Quakes Shake Chile's Infrastructure], Adam Figman, ''Contract'', 1 March 2010 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141114030306/http://www.contractmagazine.com/contract/content_display/design/news/e3i128fcc3d3e64156a013dfae605b73a5b |date=14 November 2014 }}</ref>

Chile achieved global recognition for the successful [[2010 Copiapó mining accident|rescue of 33 trapped miners]] in 2010. On 5 August 2010, the access tunnel collapsed at the San José copper and gold mine in the [[Atacama Desert]] near [[Copiapó]] in northern Chile, trapping 33 men {{convert|700|m|sp=us}} below ground. A rescue effort organized by the Chilean government located the miners 17 days later. All 33 men were brought to the surface two months later on 13 October 2010 over a period of almost 24 hours, an effort that was carried on live television around the world.<ref name="usstatedep">{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1981.htm|title=Background Note: Chile|work=[[Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs]], [[United States Department of State]]|date=16 December 2011|access-date=19 March 2012|archive-date=21 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170121153101/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1981.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Marcha_Mas_Grande_De_Chile_2019_Plaza_Baquedano_Drone.jpg|thumb|View of the [[2019–2022 Chilean protests]] towards [[Plaza Baquedano]], [[Santiago]]]]

From [[2019–20 Chilean protests|2019 to 2022]], Chile endured a series of nationwide protests in response to a rise in the [[Santiago Metro]]'s subway fare, the increased [[cost of living]], [[privatization]], and [[Economic inequality|inequality]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Chile protests: More than one million bring Santiago to a halt|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/10/chile-protests-million-bring-santiago-halt-191025223542333.html|author=Naomi Larsson|website=Al Jazeera|date=26 October 2019|access-date=19 November 2019|archive-date=26 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026165551/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/10/chile-protests-million-bring-santiago-halt-191025223542333.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 15 November, most of the political parties represented in the National Congress signed an agreement to call a [[2020 Chilean national referendum|national referendum]] in April 2020 regarding the creation of a new Constitution, later postponed to October due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Chile|COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{cite news |title=One month on: Protests in Chile persist despite gov't concessions |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/11/month-protests-chile-persist-gov-concessions-191118231609475.html |work=Al Jazeera |date=19 November 2019 |author=Sandra Cuffe |access-date=19 November 2019 |archive-date=17 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317120559/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/11/month-protests-chile-persist-gov-concessions-191118231609475.html |url-status=live }}</ref> On 25 October 2020, Chileans voted 78.28 percent in favor of a new constitution, while 21.72 percent rejected the change; voter turnout was 51 percent. An [[2021 Chilean Constitutional Convention election|election]] for the members of the [[Constitutional Convention (Chile)|Constitutional Convention]] was held in Chile between 15 and 16 May 2021;<ref name="postpone">{{Cite web |url=https://www.elmostrador.cl/noticias/pais/2021/04/06/presidente-pinera-promulga-reforma-que-posterga-elecciones-al-15-y-16-de-mayo/ |title=Presidente Piñera promulga reforma que posterga elecciones al 15 y 16 de mayo |date=6 April 2021 |website=El Mostrador |language=es |access-date=7 April 2021 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505183947/https://www.elmostrador.cl/noticias/pais/2021/04/06/presidente-pinera-promulga-reforma-que-posterga-elecciones-al-15-y-16-de-mayo/ |url-status=live }}</ref> the results saw a complete rearrangement of the political system established since the end of [[Military dictatorship of Chile (1973–1990)|Pinochet's dictatorship]] in 1990, with various independent and leftist candidates performing strongly relative to conventional center-right and center-left parties.

On 19 December 2021, a leftist candidate, the 35-year-old former student protest leader [[Gabriel Boric]], won Chile's presidential [[2021 Chilean general election|election]] to become the country's youngest leader.<ref>{{cite news |title=Leftist Gabriel Boric to become Chile's youngest ever president |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-59715941 |work=BBC News |date=20 December 2021 |access-date=21 December 2021 |archive-date=20 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220000309/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-59715941 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 11 March 2022, Boric was sworn in as president to succeed outgoing President Sebastian Piñera.<ref>{{cite news |title=Gabriel Boric, 36, sworn in as president to herald new era for Chile |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/11/gabriel-boric-chile-president-new-era |work=The Guardian |date=11 March 2022 |language=en |access-date=15 March 2022 |archive-date=12 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220312233147/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/11/gabriel-boric-chile-president-new-era |url-status=live }}</ref> The majority of Boric's Cabinet—14 out of 24—are women, which is a first in the Western Hemisphere.<ref>{{cite news |title=Chile's president-elect names progressive, majority-women cabinet |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/21/chile-gabriel-boric-cabinet-majority-women |work=The Guardian |date=21 January 2022 |language=en |access-date=15 March 2022 |archive-date=25 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125135734/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/21/chile-gabriel-boric-cabinet-majority-women |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 4 September 2022, voters rejected the new constitution proposal in the [[2022 Chilean constitutional referendum|constitutional referendum]], which was put forward by the left-leaning [[Constitutional Convention (Chile)|Constitutional Convention]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Chile constitution: Voters overwhelmingly reject radical change |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-62792025 |work=BBC News |date=5 September 2022 |access-date=14 September 2022 |archive-date=5 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220905063525/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-62792025 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 17 December 2023, voters rejected a second new constitution proposal in a new [[2023 Chilean constitutional referendum|constitutional referendum]], written by the conservative-led [[Constitutional Council (Chile)|Constitutional Council]].<ref name="reuters.com">{{cite web |last1=Villegas |first1=A. |title=Chileans reject conservative constitution to replace dictatorship-era text |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/chileans-head-polls-again-replace-dictatorship-era-constitution-2023-12-17/ |website=Reuters |access-date=18 December 2023}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=17 December 2023 |title=Chilean voters reject conservative constitution, after defeating leftist charter last year |url=https://apnews.com/article/chile-new-constitution-referendum-f7be231ff564856f6a5e1b0c0ac12c57 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231218053713/https://apnews.com/article/chile-new-constitution-referendum-f7be231ff564856f6a5e1b0c0ac12c57 |archive-date=18 December 2023 |access-date=18 December 2023 |website=AP News |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Chile rejects second attempt to renew constitution |url=https://www.dw.com/en/chile-rejects-second-attempt-to-renew-constitution/a-67749225 |access-date=19 December 2023 |website=dw.com |language=en |archive-date=18 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231218193156/https://www.dw.com/en/chile-rejects-second-attempt-to-renew-constitution/a-67749225 |url-status=live }}</ref>