Editing Chicano (section)

== Usage of terms ==

=== Early recorded use ===
[[File:Chicana_Town_1562_Map.jpg|alt=|thumb|220x220px|Closeup of the [[Gutiérrez 1562 New World map]]. The town of ''Chicana'' is listed in the upper left of the map, which is the earliest recorded usage of ''Chicana/o''.<ref name="Rodriguez-2017" />]]
The town of ''Chicana'' was shown on the [[Gutiérrez 1562 New World map]] near the mouth of the [[Colorado River]], and is probably [[Pre-Columbian era|pre-Columbian]] in origin.<ref name="Rodriguez-2017">{{cite web|title=Rodriguez: The X in LatinX|url=https://diverseeducation.com/article/97500/|last1=Rodriguez|first1=Roberto|date=June 7, 2017|website=Diverse: Issues In Higher Education|publisher=Cox, Matthews, and Associates|access-date=August 4, 2019|archive-date=August 4, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804091036/https://diverseeducation.com/article/97500/|url-status=live}}</ref> The town was again included on [[c:File:Il Desegno del Discoperto della Nova Franza.jpg|Desegno del Discoperto Della Nova Franza]], a 1566 French map by Paolo Forlani. [[Roberto Cintli Rodríguez]] places the location of ''Chicana'' at the mouth of the Colorado River, near present-day [[Yuma, Arizona]].<ref name="Rodriguez-2008">{{Cite book|last=Rodriguez|first=Roberto Garcia|title=Centeotzintli: Sacred maize. A 7,000 year ceremonial discourse|publisher=The University of Wisconsin–Madison|year=2008|page=247}}</ref> An 18th century map of the [[Nayarit]] Missions used the name ''Xicana'' for a town near the same location of ''Chicana'', which is considered to be the oldest recorded usage of that term.<ref name="Rodriguez-2008" />

A [[gunboat]], the ''Chicana'', was sold in 1857 to Jose Maria Carvajal to ship arms on the [[Rio Grande]]. The King and Kenedy firm submitted a voucher to the Joint Claims Commission of the United States in 1870 to cover the costs of this gunboat's conversion from a [[Steamboat|passenger steamer]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Chance|first=Joseph|title=Jose Maria de Jesus Carvajal: The Life and Times of a Mexican Revolutionary|date=2006|publisher=Trinity University Press|location=San Antonio, Texas|page=195}}</ref> No explanation for the boat's name is known.

The Chicano poet and writer [[Tino Villanueva]] traced the first documented use of the term as an [[ethnonym]] to 1911, as referenced in a then-unpublished essay by [[University of Texas at Austin|University of Texas]] [[Anthropology|anthropologist]] José Limón.<ref name="ERIC">Félix Rodríguez González, ed. ''Spanish Loanwords in the English Language. A Tendency towards Hegemony Reversal''. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1996. Villanueva is referring to Limón's essay "The Folk Performance of Chicano and the Cultural Limits of Political Ideology," available via [http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED198695&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED198695 ERIC] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208142445/http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED198695&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED198695 |date=2008-12-08 }}. Limón refers to use of the word in a 1911 report titled "Hot tamales" in the Spanish-language newspaper ''La Crónica'' in 1911.</ref> Linguists Edward R. Simmen and Richard F. Bauerle report the use of the term in an essay by Mexican-American writer, Mario Suárez, published in the ''Arizona Quarterly'' in 1947.<ref>Edward R. Simmen and Richard F. Bauerle. "Chicano: Origin and Meaning." ''American Speech'' 44.3 (Autumn 1969): 225–230.</ref> There is ample literary evidence to substantiate that ''Chicano'' is a long-standing [[endonym]], as a large body of Chicano literature pre-dates the 1950s.<ref name="ERIC" />

''Chicano'' was originally a [[classist]] and [[Racism|racist]] [[Pejorative|slur]] used toward [[Low income|low-income]] Mexicans that was [[Reappropriation|reclaimed]] in the 1940s among youth who belonged to the [[Pachuco]] and [[Pachucas|Pachuca]] subculture.<ref name="Macías-2008">{{Cite book|last=Macías|first=Anthony|title=Mexican American Mojo: Popular Music, Dance, and Urban Culture in Los Angeles, 1935–1968|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2008|isbn=9780822389385|page=9}}</ref>

=== Reclaiming the term ===
{{Main|Pachuco|Pachucas}}
[[File:A man arrested during the Zoot Suit Riots models a zoot suit and pancake hat in a Los Angeles County jail on June 9, 1943.jpg|thumb|245x245px|Frank H. Tellez, a [[Pachuco]] youth, wears a [[zoot suit]] while arrested in the [[Zoot Suit Riots]]. Pachucos were the first to [[Reappropriation|reclaim]] the word ''Chicano'' as a form of pride.<ref name="Macías-2008" />]]
In the 1940s, ''"Chicano"'' was reclaimed by [[Pachuco]] youth as an expression of defiance to [[Anglo-Americans|Anglo-American]] society.<ref name="Macías-2008" /> At the time, ''Chicano'' was used among [[English language|English]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] speakers as a [[classist]] and [[racist slur]] to refer to [[working class]] Mexican Americans in Spanish-speaking neighborhoods. In Mexico, the term was used with ''[[Pocho]]'' "to deride Mexicans living in the United States, and especially their U.S.-born children, for losing their culture, customs, and language."<ref name="Veléz-2010">{{Cite book|last=Veléz|first=Lupe|title=From Bananas to Buttocks: The Latina Body in Popular Film and Culture|publisher=University of Texas Press|year=2010|isbn=9780292778498|pages=66–67}}</ref> Mexican anthropologist [[Manuel Gamio]] reported in 1930 that ''Chicamo'' (with an ''m'') was used as a derogatory term by Hispanic Texans for recently arrived Mexican [[Immigration|immigrants]] displaced during the [[Mexican Revolution]] in the beginning of the early 20th century.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gamio|first=Manuel|title=Mexican Immigration to the United States: A Study of Human Migration and Adjustment|date=1930|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|location=Chicago}}</ref>

By the 1950s, ''Chicano'' referred to those who resisted total assimilation, while ''Pocho'' referred (often [[pejorative]]ly) to those who strongly advocated for assimilation.<ref>See: Adalberto M. Guerrero, Macario Saldate IV, and Salomon R. Baldenegro. [http://www.aache.org/news0999.htm "Chicano: The term and its meanings."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071022034412/http://www.aache.org/news0999.htm|date=October 22, 2007}} A paper written for Hispanic Heritage Month, published in the 1999 conference newsletter of the Arizona Association of Chicanos for Higher Education.</ref> In his essay "Chicanismo" in ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures'' (2002), [[José Cuéllar]], dates the transition from derisive to positive to the late 1950s, with increasing use by young Mexican-American high school students. These younger, politically aware Mexican Americans adopted the term "as an act of political defiance and ethnic pride", similar to the reclaiming of [[Black people|''Black'']] by [[African Americans]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Herbst|first=Philip|title=The Color of Words: An Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Ethnic Bias in the United States|publisher=Intercultural Press|year=2007|isbn=9781877864971|page=47}}</ref> The [[Chicano Movement]] during the 1960s and early 1970s played a significant role in reclaiming ''"Chicano,"'' challenging those who used it as a term of derision on both sides of the [[Mexico–United States border|Mexico-U.S. border]].<ref name="Veléz-2010" />

Demographic differences in the adoption of ''Chicano'' occurred at first. It was more likely to be used by males than females, and less likely to be used among those of higher socioeconomic status. Usage was also generational, with [[Immigrant generations|third-generation]] men more likely to use the word. This group was also younger, more political, and different from traditional Mexican cultural heritage.<ref>Vicki L. Ruiz & Virginia Sanchez Korrol, editors. ''Latinas in the United States: A Historical Encyclopedia''. [[Indiana University Press]], 2006.</ref><ref>Maria Herrera-Sobek. Chicano folklore; a handbook. Greenwood Press 2006.</ref> ''Chicana'' was a similar classist term to refer to "[a] marginalized, brown woman who is treated as a foreigner and is expected to do menial labor and ask nothing of the society in which she lives."<ref>{{cite video|title=How I Became a Genre-jumper|date=May 25, 2006|people=Ana Castillo|publisher=UCTV Channel 17|location=Santa Barbara, California|medium=TV broadcast of a lecture}}</ref> Among Mexican Americans, ''Chicano'' and ''Chicana'' began to be viewed as a positive identity of [[self-determination]] and political solidarity.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Chicana Subject in Ana Castillo's Fiction and the Discursive Zone of Chicana/o Theory|url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ769174&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ769174|work=ERIC.Ed.gov|access-date=October 13, 2008|archive-date=December 8, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208142450/http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ769174&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ769174|url-status=live}}</ref> In Mexico, ''Chicano'' may still be associated with a [[Mexican Americans|Mexican American]] person of low importance, [[Social class|class]], and poor morals (similar to the terms ''[[Cholo (subculture)|Cholo]]'', [[Majo|''Chulo'']] and ''Majo''), indicating a difference in cultural views.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chicano Art|url=http://www.umich.edu/~ac213/student_projects/ca/background.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070516000827/http://www.umich.edu/~ac213/student_projects/ca/background.htm|archive-date=2007-05-16|quote=Thus, the "Chicano" term carried an inferior, negative connotation because it was usually used to describe a worker who had to move from job to job to be able to survive. Chicanos were the low class Mexican Americans.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=McConnell, Scott|date=1997-12-31|title=Americans no more? – immigration and assimilation|work=National Review|url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1282/is_n25_v49/ai_20208927/pg_4|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013201342/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1282/is_n25_v49/ai_20208927/pg_4|archive-date=2007-10-13|quote=In the late 1960s, a nascent Mexican-American movement adopted for itself the word "Chicano" (which had a connotation of low class) and broke forth with surprising suddenness.}}</ref><ref name="Alcoff, Linda Martín 2005 395–407">{{cite journal|author=Alcoff, Linda Martín|year=2005|title=Latino vs. Hispanic: The politics of ethnic names|journal=Philosophy & Social Criticism|publisher=SAGE Publications|volume=31|issue=4|pages=395–407|doi=10.1177/0191453705052972|s2cid=144267416}}</ref>

=== Chicano Movement ===
{{Main|Chicano Movement}}
[[File:Chicano power flag of aztlan.jpg|thumb|230x230px|''Chicano'' became widely adopted during the [[Chicano Movement]].]]
''Chicano'' was widely reclaimed in the 1960s and 1970s during the [[Chicano Movement]] to assert a distinct ethnic, political, and cultural identity that resisted assimilation into the [[Mainstream culture|mainstream]] American culture, systematic racism and stereotypes, colonialism, and the American nation-state.<ref name="Varon-2018" /> Chicano identity formed around seven themes: unity, economy, education, institutions, self-defense, culture, and political liberation, in an effort to bridge regional and class divisions.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://icaa.mfah.org/s/en/item/803398#?c=&m=&s=&cv=1&xywh=-408%2C-54%2C3275%2C1833 | title=El plan espiritual de Aztlan · ICAA Documents Project · ICAA/MFAH | access-date=2023-03-05 | archive-date=2023-03-05 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305005255/https://icaa.mfah.org/s/en/item/803398#?c=&m=&s=&cv=1&xywh=-408%2C-54%2C3275%2C1833 | url-status=live }}</ref> The notion of [[Aztlán]], a mythical homeland claimed to be located in the [[southwestern United States]], mobilized Mexican Americans to take social and political action. ''Chicano'' became a unifying term for ''[[mestizo]]s''.<ref name="Varon-2018">{{Cite book|title=Before Chicano: Citizenship and the Making of Mexican American Manhood, 1848-1959|last=Varon|first=Alberto|publisher=NYU Press|year=2018|isbn=9781479831197|pages=207–211}}</ref> ''Xicano'' was also used in the 1970s.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pdx1AAAAMAAJ&q=before:1980+%22xicano%22 |title=El Quetzal Emplumece |date=1976 |publisher=Mexican American Cultural Center |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Terán |first=Heriberto G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sFY_AAAAIAAJ&q=before:1980+%22xicano%22 |title=Espejo de Alma Y Corazon |date=1975 |publisher=Familia y Amigos de Terán |language=en}}</ref>

In the 1970s, Chicanos developed a reverence for [[machismo]] while also maintaining the values of their original platform. For instance, [[Oscar Zeta Acosta]] defined machismo as the source of Chicano identity, claiming that this "instinctual and mystical source of manhood, honor and pride... alone justifies all behavior."<ref name="Gutiérrez-Jones-1995">{{Cite book|title=Rethinking the Borderlands: Between Chicano Culture and Legal Discourse|last=Gutiérrez-Jones|first=Carl|publisher=University of California Press|year=1995|isbn=9780520085794|page=134}}</ref> Armando Rendón wrote in ''Chicano Manifesto'' (1971) that machismo was "in fact an underlying drive of the gathering identification of Mexican Americans... the essence of ''machismo'', of being ''macho'', is as much a symbolic principle for the Chicano revolt as it is a guideline for family life."<ref name="Jacobs-2006">{{Cite book|title=Mexican American Literature: The Politics of Identity|url=https://archive.org/details/mexicanamericanl00jaco|url-access=limited|last=Jacobs|first=Elizabeth|publisher=Routledge|year=2006|isbn=9780415364904|page=[https://archive.org/details/mexicanamericanl00jaco/page/n93 87]}}</ref>

From the beginning of the Chicano Movement, some Chicanas criticized the idea that [[machismo]] must guide the people and questioned if machismo was "indeed a genuinely Mexican cultural value or a kind of distorted view of masculinity generated by the psychological need to compensate for the indignities suffered by Chicanos in a [[White Supremacist|white supremacist]] society."<ref name="Orosco-2008" /> [[Angie Chabram-Dernersesian]] found that most of the literature on the Chicano Movement focused on men and boys, while almost none focused on Chicanas. The omission of Chicanas and the machismo of the Chicano Movement led to a shift by the 1990s.<ref name="Orosco-2008">{{Cite book|title=Cesar Chavez and the Common Sense of Nonviolence|last=Orosco|first=José-Antonio|publisher=University of New Mexico Press|year=2008|isbn=9780826343758|pages=[https://archive.org/details/cesarchavezcommo00oros/page/71 71–72, 85]|url=https://archive.org/details/cesarchavezcommo00oros/page/71}}</ref>

=== Xicanisma ===
{{Main|Xicanisma}}
[[File:Ana Castillo by David Shankbone.jpg|thumb|203x203px|[[Ana Castillo]] coined ''Xicanisma'' to reflect a shift in consciousness since the Chicano Movement.<ref name="Lerate-2007" />]]
''[[Xicanisma]]'' was coined by [[Ana Castillo]] in ''Massacre of the Dreamers'' (1994) as a recognition of a shift in consciousness since the Chicano Movement and to reinvigorate [[Chicana feminism]].<ref name="Lerate-2007">{{Cite book|title=Critical Essays on Chicano Studies|last1=Lerate|first1=Jesús|last2=Ángeles Toda Iglesia|first2=María|publisher=Peter Lang AG|year=2007|isbn=9783039112814|page=26|chapter=Entrevista con Ana Castillo}}</ref> The aim of Xicanisma is not to replace [[patriarchy]] with [[matriarchy]], but to create "a nonmaterialistic and nonexploitive society in which feminine principles of nurturing and community prevail"; where the feminine is reinserted into our consciousness [[Coloniality of gender|rather than subordinated by colonization]].<ref name="Acampora-Cotten-2007">{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/72699085 |title=Unmaking race, remaking soul: transformative aesthetics and the practice of freedom |date=2007 |publisher=[[State University of New York Press]] |first1=Christa |last1=Davis Acampora|first2=Trystan T. |last2=Cotten |isbn=9780791471616 |location=Albany, NY |pages=42–43 |oclc=72699085}}</ref><ref name="Aviles-2018">{{Cite book |last=Aviles |first=E. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1076485572 |title=Contemporary U.S. Latinx literature in Spanish : straddling identities |date=2018 |others=Michele Shaul, Kathryn Quinn-Sánchez, Amrita Das |isbn=9783030025984 |location=Cham, Switzerland |pages=30–31 |oclc=1076485572}}</ref> The ''X'' reflects the ''Sh'' sound in [[Mesoamerican languages]] (such as ''[[Tlaxcala]]'', which is pronounced ''Tlash-KAH-lah''),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Adams |first=Richard E. W. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/58975830 |title=Prehistoric Mesoamerica |date=2005 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=0-8061-3702-9 |edition=3rd |location=Norman |page=433 |oclc=58975830 |quote=Sixteenth-century Spanish was different from modern Spanish and had an x used to represent the sh sound. Thus, Tlaxcala is Tlash-KAH-lah and Texcoco is Tesh-KOH-koh.}}</ref> and so marked this sound with a letter X.<ref name="Baca-2008" /> More than a letter, the ''X'' in Xicanisma is also a symbol to represent being at a literal [[Intersection (road)|crossroads]] or otherwise embodying [[hybridity]].<ref name="Acampora-Cotten-2007" /><ref name="Aviles-2018" />
[[File:Xicano (5720815588).jpg|left|thumb|219x219px|A man with ''Xicano'' on his shirt.]]
''Xicanisma'' acknowledges Indigenous survival after [[European colonization of the Americas|hundreds of years of colonization]] and the need to reclaim one's Indigenous roots while also being "committed to the struggle for liberation of all oppressed people", wrote Francesca A. López.<ref name="López-2017" /> Activists like [[Guillermo Gómez-Peña]], issued "a call for a return to the Amerindian roots of most Latinos as well as a call for a strategic alliance to give agency to Native American groups."<ref name="Velasco-2002" /> This can include one's [[Indigenous peoples of Mexico|Indigenous roots from Mexico]] "as well as those with roots centered in Central and South America," wrote Francisco Rios.<ref name="Rios-2013">{{Cite journal|last=Rios|first=Francisco|date=Spring 2013|title=From Chicano/a to Xicana/o: Critical Activist Teaching Revisited|url= |journal=Multicultural Education|volume=20|pages=59–61|id={{ProQuest|1495448383}} {{Gale|A411196911}} }}</ref> Castillo argued that this shift in language was important because "language is the vehicle by which we perceive ourselves in relation to the world".<ref name="Aviles-2018" />
[[File:Luis J Rodriguez NBCC Awards (cropped).jpg|thumb|187x187px|[[Luis J. Rodriguez]] refers to ''[[Xicanx]]'' as important for [[gender non-conforming]] Mexican Americans.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web |date=5 February 2020 |title=Author Luis J. Rodriguez "From Our Land to Our Land" |url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/books/story/2020-02-05/luis-rodriguez-from-our-land-to-our-land |website=Los Angeles Times |access-date=2020-10-20 |archive-date=2020-10-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020034551/https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/books/story/2020-02-05/luis-rodriguez-from-our-land-to-our-land |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
Among a minority of Mexican Americans, the term ''[[Xicanx]]'' may be used to refer to [[gender non-conformity]]. [[Luis J. Rodriguez]] states that "even though most US Mexicans may not use this term," that it can be important for gender non-conforming [[Mexican Americans]].<ref name="Rodriguez-2020" /> ''Xicanx'' may destabilize aspects of the [[coloniality of gender]] in Mexican American communities.<ref>{{Cite book|last=DiPietro|first=Pedro J.|title=Theories of the Flesh: Latinx and Latin American Feminisms, Transformation, and Resistance|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2020|isbn=9780190062996|page=226|chapter=Hallucinating Knowledge: (Extra)ordinary Consciousness, More-Than-Human Perception, and Other Decolonizing Remedios with Latina and Xicana Feminist Theories}}</ref><ref>Zepeda, Susy. "Decolonizing Xicana/x Studies." ''Aztlán: A Journal of Chicano Studies'' 45, no. 1 (2020).</ref><ref>Luna, Jennie, and Gabriel S. Estrada. "Trans* lating the Genderqueer-X through Caxcan, Nahua, and Xicanx Indígena Knowledge." ''Decolonizing Latinx Masculinities'' (2020): 251.</ref> Artist Roy Martinez states that it is not "bound to the feminine or masculine aspects" and that it may be "inclusive to anyone who identifies with it".<ref name="Calderón-Douglass-2016">{{Cite web|title=Meet the Artist Bringing Queer and Chicano Culture Together in a Glorious NSFW Mashup|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/lambe-culo-brings-queer-and-chicano-culture-together-with-nsfw-internet-art-456/|last=Calderón-Douglass|first=Barbara|date=16 March 2016|website=Vice|access-date=26 May 2020|archive-date=19 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190919150152/https://www.vice.com/en_uk/article/8gkpk4/lambe-culo-brings-queer-and-chicano-culture-together-with-nsfw-internet-art-456|url-status=live}}</ref> Some prefer the -e suffix ''Xicane'' in order to be more in-line with Spanish-speaking language constructs.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harbaugh |first=Stacy |title=Non-binary Xicane Benji Ramirez challenges out Alder Patrick Heck for District 2 seat |url=https://ourliveswisconsin.com/article/non-binary-xicane-benji-ramirez-challenges-out-alder-patrick-heck-for-district-2-seat/ |access-date=2023-01-13 |website=Our Lives |archive-date=2023-01-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230113212421/https://ourliveswisconsin.com/article/non-binary-xicane-benji-ramirez-challenges-out-alder-patrick-heck-for-district-2-seat/ |url-status=live }}</ref>