Editing Charlemagne (section)

==Early life and rise to power==
===Political background and ancestry===
[[File:Francia 714.png|thumb|upright=1.25|alt=Colour-coded map|{{centre|Francia in 714}}]]

By the sixth century, the western [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] tribe of the [[Franks]] had been [[Christianisation of the Germanic peoples|Christianised]]; this was due in considerable measure to the conversion of their king, [[Clovis I|Clovis&nbsp;I]], to Catholicism.{{sfn|Waldman|Mason|2006|pp=270, 274–275}} The Franks had established a kingdom in [[Gaul]] in the wake of the [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire]].{{sfn|Heather|2009|pp=305–306}} This kingdom, [[Francia]], grew to encompass nearly all of present-day France and Switzerland, along with parts of modern Germany and the [[Low Countries]] under the rule of the [[Merovingian dynasty]].{{sfn|Costambeys|Innes|MacLean|2011|p=35}} Francia was often divided under different Merovingian kings, due to the [[partible inheritance]] practised by the Franks.{{sfn|Costambeys|Innes|MacLean|2011|pp=35–37}} The late seventh century saw a period of war and instability following the murder of King [[Childeric II]], which led to factional struggles among the Frankish aristocrats.{{sfn|Costambeys|Innes|MacLean|2011|p=38}}

[[Pepin of Herstal]], [[mayor of the palace]] of [[Austrasia]], ended the strife between various kings and their mayors with his 687 victory at the [[Battle of Tertry]].{{sfn|Frassetto|2003|p=292}} Pepin was the grandson of two important figures of Austrasia: [[Arnulf of Metz]] and [[Pepin of Landen]].{{sfn|Frassetto|2003|pp=292–293}} The mayors of the palace had gained influence as the Merovingian kings' power waned due to divisions of the kingdom and several succession crises.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|p=16}} Pepin was eventually succeeded by his son Charles, later known as Charles Martel.{{sfn|Waldman|Mason|2006|p=271}} Charles did not support a Merovingian successor upon the death of King [[Theuderic IV]] in 737, leaving the throne vacant.{{sfn|McKitterick|2008|p=65}} He made plans to divide the kingdom between his sons, [[Carloman (mayor of the palace)|Carloman]] and [[Pepin the Short]], who succeeded him after his death in 741.{{sfn|Costambeys|Innes|MacLean|2011|pp=51–52}} The brothers placed the Merovingian [[Childeric III]] on the throne in 743.{{sfn|McKitterick|2008|p=71}} Pepin married [[Bertrada of Laon|Bertrada]], a member of an influential Austrasian noble family, in 744.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|pp=61–65}}{{sfn|Fried|2016|p=17}} In 747, Carloman abdicated and entered a monastery in Rome. He had at least two sons; the elder, [[Drogo (mayor of the palace)|Drogo]], took his place.{{sfn|Costambeys|Innes|MacLean|2011|p=55}}

===Birth===
Charlemagne's year of birth is uncertain, although it was most likely in 748.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|p=29}}{{sfn|Costambeys|Innes|MacLean|2011|p=56}}{{sfn|Fried|2016|p=15}}{{sfn|Collins|1998|p=32}} An older tradition based on three sources, however, gives a birth year of 742. The ninth-century biographer [[Einhard]] reports Charlemagne as being 72 years old at the time of his death; the ''Royal Frankish Annals'' imprecisely gives his age at death as about 71, and his original epitaph called him a septuagenarian.{{sfn|Barbero|2004|p=11}} Einhard said that he did not know much about Charlemagne's early life; some modern scholars believe that, not knowing the emperor's true age, he still sought to present an exact date in keeping with the Roman imperial biographies of [[Suetonius]], which he used as a model.{{sfn|Becher|2005|p=41}}{{sfn|Nelson|2019|pp=28–28}} All three sources may have been influenced by [[Psalm 90]]: "The days of our years are threescore years and ten".{{sfn|Hägermann|2011|p=xxx}}

Historian [[Karl Ferdinand Werner]] challenged the acceptance of 742 as the Frankish king's birth year, citing an addition to the ''[[Annales Petaviani]]'' which records Charlemagne's birth in 747.{{sfn|Barbero|2004|p=350 n7}}{{efn|"At 747 the scribe had written: {{lang|la|'Et ipso anno fuit natus Karolus rex'}} ('and in that year, King Charles was born')."{{sfn|Nelson|2019|p=29}}}} [[Lorsch Abbey]] commemorated Charlemagne's date of birth as 2 April from the mid-ninth century, and this date is likely to be genuine.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|p=28}}{{sfn|Barbero|2004|p=12}} Matthias Becher built on Werner's work and showed that 2 April in the year recorded would have actually been in 748, since the annalists recorded the start of the year from Easter rather than 1 January.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|p=29}} Presently, most scholars accept April 748 for Charlemagne's birth.{{sfn|Fried|2016|pp=15–16}}{{sfn|Nelson|2019|p=29}}{{sfn|Costambeys|Innes|MacLean|2011|p=56}} Charlemagne's place of birth is unknown. The Frankish palaces in [[Vaires-sur-Marne]] and [[Quierzy]] are among the places suggested by scholars.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|p=68}} Pepin the Short held an assembly in [[Düren]] in 748, but it cannot be proved that it took place in April or if Bertrada was with him.{{sfn|Hägermann|2011|p=xxxiii}}

===Language and education===
[[File:Charlemagne c 800.jpg|thumb|alt=A simple sketch of a man pointing at himself|Sketch thought to be of Charlemagne,{{efn|Historian Johannes Fried writes that "Comparisons with other images allow us to interpret it as a sketch of an ancient emperor or king, or even of Charlemagne himself. However sketchy and unaccomplished the drawing is, its message and its moral could not be clearer: the ruler appears here as a powerful protector, guarding the Church with his weapons and—as the following text emphasises—restoring it according to the dictates of the faith and the Church Fathers in preparation for the impending end time."{{sfn|Fried|2016|pp=262–263}} }} {{Circa|800}}]]
 	
The {{lang|la|patrius sermo}} ("native tongue"){{sfn|Nelson|2019|p=68}} that Einhard refers to with regard to Charlemagne, was a Germanic language.{{sfn|Chambers|Wilkie|2014|p=33}}{{sfn|McKitterick|2008|p=318}} Due to the prevalence in Francia of "[[Vulgar Latin|rustic Roman]]", he was probably functionally bilingual in Germanic and Romance dialects at an early age.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|p=68}} Charlemagne also spoke Latin and, according to Einhard, could understand and (perhaps) speak some Greek.{{sfn|Fried|2016|p=24}} Some 19th century historians tried to use the [[Oaths of Strasbourg]] (842) to determine Charlemagne's native language. They assumed that the text's copyist, [[Nithard]], being a grandson of Charlemagne, would have spoken the same dialect as his grandfather, giving rise to the assumption that Charlemagne would have spoken language closely related to the one used in the oath, which is a form of [[Old High German]] ancestral to the modern [[Rhenish Franconian]] dialects.{{sfn|Chambers|Wilkie|2014|p=33}}{{sfn|McKitterick|2008|p=318}} Other authors have instead taken the place of Charlemagne's education and main residence (Aachen), to postulate that Charlemagne most likely spoke a form of [[Moselle Franconian|Moselle-]] or [[Ripuarian language|Ripuarian Franconian]]. In any case, all three dialects would have been closely related, mutually intelligible and, while classified as Old High German, none of the dialects involved can be considered typical of Old High German, showing [[Rhenish fan|varying degrees of participation]] in the [[High German consonant shift]] as well as certain similarities with [[Old Dutch]], the presumed language of the previous [[Merovingian dynasty]], mirroring the linguistic diversity still typical of the region today.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|p=68}} 

Charlemagne's father Pepin had been educated at the abbey of [[Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis|Saint-Denis]], although the extent of Charlemagne's formal education is unknown.{{sfn|Dutton|2016|pp=71–72}} He almost certainly was trained in military matters as a youth in Pepin's court,{{sfn|Dutton|2016|p=72}} which was [[Itinerant court|itinerant]].{{sfn|Fried|2016|pp=14–15}} Charlemagne also asserted his own education in the [[Liberal arts education#History|liberal arts]] in encouraging their study by his children and others, although it is unknown whether his study was as a child or at court during his later life.{{sfn|Dutton|2016|p=72}} The question of Charlemagne's literacy is debated, with little direct evidence from contemporary sources. He normally had texts read aloud to him and dictated responses and decrees, but this was not unusual even for a literate ruler at the time.{{sfn|Dutton|2016|pp=75–80}} Historian [[Johannes Fried]] considers it likely that Charlemagne would have been able to read,{{sfn|Fried|2016|p=271}} but the medievalist Paul Dutton writes that "the evidence for his ability to read is circumstantial and inferential at best"{{sfn|Dutton|2016|p=75}} and concludes that it is likely that he never properly mastered the skill.{{sfn|Dutton|2016|p=91}} Einhard makes no direct mention of Charlemagne reading, and recorded that he only attempted to learn to write later in life.{{sfn|Collins|1998|p=120}}

===<span class="anchor" id="Accession and joint reign with Carloman"></span>Accession and reign with Carloman===
There are only occasional references to Charlemagne in the Frankish [[annals]] during his father's lifetime.{{sfn|McKitterick|2008|p=73}} By 751 or 752, Pepin had deposed Childeric and replaced him as king.{{sfn|McKitterick|2008|pp=71–72}} Early Carolingian-influenced sources claim that Pepin's seizure of the throne was sanctioned beforehand by [[Pope Stephen II]],{{sfn|Costambeys|Innes|MacLean|2011|p=32}} but modern historians dispute this.{{sfn|Costambeys|Innes|MacLean|2011|p=34}}{{sfn|McKitterick|2008|p=71}} It is possible that papal approval came only when Stephen travelled to Francia in 754 (apparently to request Pepin's aid against the Lombards), and on this trip [[Anointing|anointed]] Pepin as king; this legitimised his rule.{{sfn|McKitterick|2008|p=72}}{{sfn|Costambeys|Innes|MacLean|2011|p=34}} Charlemagne was sent to greet and escort the Pope, and he and his younger brother [[Carloman I|Carloman]] were anointed with their father.{{sfn|McKitterick|2008|pp=72–73}} Pepin sidelined Drogo around the same time, sending him and his brother to a monastery.{{sfn|Costambeys|Innes|MacLean|2011|p=62}}

Charlemagne began issuing charters in his own name in 760. The following year, he joined his father's campaign against [[Aquitaine]].{{sfn|McKitterick|2008|p=74}} Aquitaine, led by Dukes [[Hunald I|Hunald]] and [[Waiofar]], was constantly in rebellion during Pepin's reign.{{sfn|Costambeys|Innes|MacLean|2011|p=64}} Pepin fell ill on campaign there and died on 24 September 768, and Charlemagne and Carloman succeeded their father.{{sfn|McKitterick|2008|p=75}} They had separate coronations, Charlemagne at [[Noyon]] and Carloman at [[Soissons]], on 9 October.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|p=91}} The brothers maintained separate palaces and spheres of influence, although they were considered joint rulers of a single Frankish kingdom.{{sfn|McKitterick|2008|p=77}} The ''Royal Frankish Annals'' report that Charlemagne ruled Austrasia and Carloman ruled [[Kingdom of Burgundy|Burgundy]], [[Provence]], Aquitaine, and [[Alamannia]], with no mention made of which brother received Neustria.{{sfn|McKitterick|2008|p=77}} The immediate concern of the brothers was the ongoing uprising in Aquitaine.{{sfn|Costambeys|Innes|MacLean|2011|p=65}} They marched into Aquitaine together, but Carloman returned to Francia for unknown reasons and Charlemagne completed the campaign on his own.{{sfn|Costambeys|Innes|MacLean|2011|p=65}} Charlemagne's capture of Duke Hunald marked the end of ten years of war that had been waged in the attempt to bring Aquitaine into line.{{sfn|Costambeys|Innes|MacLean|2011|p=65}}

Carloman's refusal to participate in the war against Aquitaine led to a rift between the kings.{{sfn|Costambeys|Innes|MacLean|2011|p=65}}{{sfn|McKitterick|2008|p=79}} It is uncertain why Carloman abandoned the campaign; the brothers may have disagreed about control of the territory,{{sfn|Costambeys|Innes|MacLean|2011|p=65}}{{sfn|McKitterick|2008|p=80}} or Carloman was focused on securing his rule in the north of Francia.{{sfn|McKitterick|2008|p=80}} Regardless of the strife between the kings, they maintained a joint rule for practical reasons.{{sfn|McKitterick|2008|p=81}} Charlemagne and Carloman worked to obtain the support of the clergy and local elites to solidify their positions.{{sfn|McKitterick|2008|p=82}}

[[Pope Stephen III]] was elected in 768, but was briefly deposed by [[Antipope Constantine II]] before being restored to Rome.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|p=99}} Stephen's papacy experienced continuing factional struggles, so he sought support from the Frankish kings.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|pp=99, 101}} Both brothers sent troops to Rome, each hoping to exert his own influence.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|pp=100–101}} The Lombard king [[Desiderius]] also had interests in Roman affairs, and Charlemagne attempted to enlist him as an ally.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|p=101}} Desiderius already had alliances with [[Duchy of Bavaria|Bavaria]] and [[Duchy of Benevento|Benevento]] through the marriages of his daughters to their dukes,{{sfn|Nelson|2019|pp=84–85, 101}} and an alliance with Charlemagne would add to his influence.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|p=101}} Charlemagne's mother, Bertrada, went on his behalf to Lombardy in 770 and brokered a marriage alliance before returning to Francia with his new bride.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|p=106}} Desiderius's daughter is traditionally known as [[Desiderata of the Lombards|Desiderata]], although she may have been named Gerperga.{{sfn|Nelson|2007|p=31}}{{sfn|Costambeys|Innes|MacLean|2011|p=65}} Anxious about the prospect of a Frankish–Lombard alliance, Pope Stephen sent a letter to both Frankish kings decrying the marriage and separately sought closer ties with Carloman.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|pp=104–106}}

Charlemagne had already had a relationship with the Frankish noblewoman [[Himiltrude]], and they had a son in 769 named [[Pepin the Hunchback|Pepin]].{{sfn|Nelson|2019|p=91}} [[Paul the Deacon]] wrote in his 784 {{lang|la|Gesta Episcoporum Mettensium}} that Pepin was born "before legal marriage", but does not say whether Charles and Himiltrude ever married, were joined in a non-canonical marriage ({{lang|de|[[friedelehe]]}}), or married after Pepin was born.{{sfn|Goffart|1986}} Pope Stephen's letter described the relationship as a legitimate marriage, but he had a vested interest in preventing Charlemagne from marrying Desiderius's daughter.{{sfn|McKitterick|2008|p=84}}

Carloman died suddenly on 4 December 771, leaving Charlemagne sole king of the Franks.{{sfn|McKitterick|2008|p=87}} He moved immediately to secure his hold on his brother's territory, forcing Carloman's widow [[Gerberga, wife of Carloman I|Gerberga]] to flee to Desiderius's court in Lombardy with their children.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|pp=108–109}}{{sfn|Costambeys|Innes|MacLean|2011|p=66}} Charlemagne ended his marriage to Desiderius's daughter and married [[Hildegard (queen)|Hildegard]], daughter of count [[Gerold of Anglachgau|Gerold]], a powerful magnate in Carloman's kingdom.{{sfn|Costambeys|Innes|MacLean|2011|p=66}} This was a reaction to Desiderius's sheltering of Carloman's family{{sfn|Nelson|2019|pp=109–110}} and a move to secure Gerold's support.{{sfn|McKitterick|2008|p=89}}{{sfn|Nelson|2019|pp=110–111}}