Editing Cavalry (section)

==Early history==

===Origins===
[[File:Assyriancavalry.JPG|thumb|left|[[Assyrian cavalry]]]]

Before the [[Iron Age]], the role of cavalry on the battlefield was largely performed by light [[chariot]]s. The chariot originated with the [[Sintashta-Petrovka]] culture in [[Central Asia]] and spread by [[nomad]]ic or semi-nomadic [[Indo-Iranians]].{{sfnp|Menon|1995|p=1}} The chariot was quickly adopted by settled peoples both as a military technology and an object of ceremonial status, especially by the [[pharaoh]]s of the [[New Kingdom of Egypt]] from 1550 BC as well as the [[Assyrian army]] and [[Babylonia]]n royalty.<ref>Terrence Wise, p. 18, ''Ancient Armies of the Middle East'', Osprey Publishing Ltd 1981 {{ISBN|0-85045-384-4}}</ref>

The power of mobility given by mounted units was recognized early on, but was offset by the difficulty of raising large forces and by the inability of [[horse]]s (then mostly small) to carry heavy [[armor]]. Nonetheless, there are indications that, from the 15th century BC onwards, horseback riding was practiced amongst the military elites of the great states of the ancient Near East, most notably those in [[Egypt]], [[Assyria]], the [[Hittite Empire]], and [[Mycenaean Greece]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.academia.edu/1532320 |title=Horseback riding and Cavalry in Mycenaean Greece|last1=Kelder|first1=Jorrit}}</ref>

Cavalry techniques, and the rise of true cavalry, were an innovation of [[equestrian nomad]]s of the [[Eurasian Steppe]] and [[pastoral farming|pastoralist]] [[tribe]]s such as the [[Persian people|Iranic]] [[Parthia]]ns and [[Sarmatians]]. Together with a core of armoured lancers,<ref>{{cite book|first=R.|last=Brzezinski|page=46|title=The Sarmatians 600 BC – AD 450|date= 2002 |publisher=Bloomsbury USA |isbn=978-1-84176-485-6}}</ref> these were predominantly [[horse archers]] using the [[Parthian shot]] tactic.<ref>{{cite book|first=R.|last=Brzezinski|page=16|title=The Sarmatians 600 BC – AD 450|date= 2002 |publisher=Bloomsbury USA |isbn=978-1-84176-485-6}}</ref> 
[[File:ParthianHorseman.jpg|thumb|upright|Parthian horseman, now on display at the [[Palazzo Madama, Turin]]]]

The photograph straight above shows Assyrian cavalry from reliefs of 865–860 BC. At this time, the men had no [[spur]]s, [[saddle]]s, [[saddle cloth]]s, or [[stirrup]]s. Fighting from the back of a horse was much more difficult than mere riding. The cavalry acted in pairs; the reins of the [[mounted archer]] were controlled by his neighbour's hand. Even at this early time, cavalry used swords, shields, spears, and bows. The sculpture implies two types of cavalry, but this might be a simplification by the artist. Later images of Assyrian cavalry show saddle cloths as primitive saddles, allowing each archer to control his own horse.<ref>Terrence Wise, plate H, ''Ancient Armies of the Middle East'', Osprey Publishing Ltd 1981 {{ISBN|0-85045-384-4}}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref>

As early as 490 BC a [[Nisean horse|breed of large horses]] was bred in the [[Nisaean plain]] in Media to carry [[Cataphract|men with increasing amounts of armour]] (Herodotus 7,40 & 9,20), but large horses were still very exceptional at this time. By the fourth century BC the Chinese during the [[Warring States period]] (403&ndash;221 BC) began to use cavalry against rival states,{{sfnp|Ebrey|Walthall|Palais|2006|pp=29–30}} and by 331 BC when [[Alexander the Great]] defeated the Persians the use of chariots in battle was obsolete in most nations; despite a few ineffective attempts to revive [[scythed chariot]]s. The last recorded use of chariots as a shock force in continental Europe was during the [[Battle of Telamon]] in 225 BC.{{sfnp|Warry|1980|p=164}} However, chariots remained in use for ceremonial purposes such as carrying the victorious general in a [[Roman triumph]], or for racing.

Outside of mainland Europe, the southern [[Britons (historical)|Britons]] met [[Julius Caesar]] with chariots in [[Caesar's invasions of Britain|55 and 54 BC]], but by the time of the [[Roman conquest of Britain]] a century later chariots were obsolete, even in Britannia. The last mention of chariot use in Britain was by the [[Caledonia]]ns at the [[Battle of Mons Graupius|Mons Graupius]], in 84 AD.

===Ancient Greece: city-states, Thebes, Thessaly and Macedonia===
[[File:Amphora Louvre F12.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Warrior's departure; an [[Athens|Athenian]] [[amphora]] dated 550–540 BC]]
{{main|Hippeis|Companion cavalry}}

During the classical Greek period, cavalry was usually limited to citizens who could afford expensive war-horses. Three types of cavalry became common: light cavalry - who armed with [[javelin]]s could harass and skirmish; heavy cavalry - using [[lance]]s and having the ability to close in on their opponents; and finally those whose equipment allowed them to fight either on horseback or foot. The role of horsemen did, however, remain secondary to that of the [[hoplites]] or heavy infantry who comprised the main strength of the citizen levies of the various city states.{{sfnp|Warry|1980|p=37}}

Cavalry played a relatively minor role in [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[city-states]], with conflicts decided by massed armored infantry. However, [[Ancient Thebes (Boeotia)|Thebes]] produced [[Pelopidas]], their first great cavalry commander, whose tactics and skills were absorbed by [[Philip II of Macedon]] when Philip was a [[Hostage#Historical_practices|guest-hostage]] in Thebes. [[Thessaly]] was widely known for producing competent cavalrymen,<ref>{{cite book |first=Nick |last=Sekunda |page=[https://archive.org/details/armyalexandergre00seku/page/n18 18] |title=The Army of Alexander the Great |year=1984 |publisher=Bloomsbury USA |url=https://archive.org/details/armyalexandergre00seku |url-access=limited |isbn=0-85045-539-1}}</ref> and later experiences in wars both with and against the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian]]s taught the [[Greeks]] the value of cavalry in skirmishing and pursuit. The [[Athens|Athenian]] author and soldier [[Xenophon]] in particular advocated the creation of a small but well-trained cavalry force; to that end, he wrote several manuals on horsemanship and cavalry operations.{{sfnp|Warry|1980|p=54}}

The [[Macedon]]ian kingdom in the north, on the other hand, developed a strong cavalry force that culminated in the ''hetairoi'' ([[Companion cavalry]])<ref>{{cite book |first=Nick |last=Sekunda |page=[https://archive.org/details/armyalexandergre00seku/page/n17 17] |title=The Army of Alexander the Great |year=1984 |publisher=Bloomsbury USA |url=https://archive.org/details/armyalexandergre00seku |url-access=limited |isbn=0-85045-539-1}}</ref> of Philip II of Macedon and [[Alexander the Great]]. In addition to these heavy cavalry, the Macedonian army also employed lighter horsemen<ref>{{cite book |first=Nicholas |last=Sekunda |page=42 |title=Macedonian Armies after Alexander 323–168 BC |date=2012|publisher=Bloomsbury USA |isbn=978-1-84908-714-8}}</ref> called [[prodromoi]] for scouting and screening, as well as the [[Macedonian phalanx|Macedonian pike phalanx]] and various kinds of [[light infantry]]. There were also the ''Ippiko'' (or "Horserider"), Greek "heavy" cavalry, armed with [[Kontos (weapon)|kontos]] (or cavalry lance), and sword. These wore leather armour or mail plus a helmet. They were medium rather than heavy cavalry, meaning that they were better suited to be scouts, skirmishers, and pursuers rather than front line fighters. The effectiveness of this combination of cavalry and infantry helped to break enemy lines and was most dramatically demonstrated in Alexander's conquests of [[Persia]], [[Bactria]], and northwestern India.<ref>{{cite book |first=Nick |last=Sekunda |pages=[https://archive.org/details/armyalexandergre00seku/page/n14 14]–22 |title=The Army of Alexander the Great |year=1984 |publisher=Bloomsbury USA |url=https://archive.org/details/armyalexandergre00seku |url-access=limited |isbn=0-85045-539-1}}</ref>

===Roman Republic and early Empire===
{{main|Roman cavalry}}
[[File:Köln Reitergrabmal.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Tombstone of a Roman [[auxilia]]ry trooper from [[History of Cologne|Cologne]], Germany. Second half of the first century AD.]]

The cavalry in the early [[Roman Republic]] remained the preserve of the wealthy [[landed class]] known as the ''[[equites]]''—men who could afford the expense of maintaining a horse in addition to arms and armor heavier than those of the common [[Roman legion|legion]]s. Horses were provided by the Republic and could be withdrawn if neglected or misused, together with the status of being a cavalryman.<ref>{{cite book |first=Nick |last=Sekunda |page=[https://archive.org/details/republicanromana00seku_961/page/n36 36] |title=Republican Roman Army 200–104 BC |year=1996 |publisher=Bloomsbury USA |url=https://archive.org/details/republicanromana00seku_961 |url-access=limited |isbn=1-85532-598-5}}</ref>

As the class grew to be more of a social elite instead of a functional property-based military grouping, the Romans began to employ Italian [[socii]] for filling the ranks of their cavalry.<ref>{{cite book |first=Nick |last=Sekunda |page=33 |title=Early Roman Armies |date=1995 |publisher=Bloomsbury USA |isbn=1-85532-513-6}}</ref> The weakness of Roman cavalry was demonstrated by [[Hannibal|Hannibal Barca]] during the [[Second Punic War]] where he used his superior mounted forces to win several battles. The most notable of these was the [[Battle of Cannae]], where he inflicted a catastrophic defeat on the Romans. At about the same time the Romans began to recruit foreign auxiliary cavalry from among [[Gauls]], [[Iberians]], and [[Numidians]], the last being highly valued as mounted skirmishers and scouts (see [[Numidian cavalry]]). [[Julius Caesar]] had a high opinion of his escort of Germanic mixed cavalry, giving rise to the ''[[cohors equitata|Cohortes Equitatae]]''. Early emperors maintained an [[Ala (Roman cavalry unit)|ala]] of [[Batavi (Germanic tribe)|Batavi]]an cavalry as their [[Germanic bodyguard|personal bodyguards]] until the unit was dismissed by [[Galba]] after the [[Batavian Rebellion]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Boris|last=Rankov|page=12|title=The Praetorian Guard|date=1994|publisher=Bloomsbury USA |isbn=1-85532-361-3}}</ref>

For the most part, Roman cavalry during the early Republic functioned as an adjunct to the legionary infantry and formed only one-fifth of the standing force comprising a consular army. Except in times of major mobilisation about 1,800 horsemen were maintained, with three hundred attached to each legion.<ref>{{cite book |first=Nick |last=Sekunda |year=1996 |title=Republican Roman Army 200–104 BC |pages=[https://archive.org/details/republicanromana00seku_961/page/n36 36]–37 |publisher=Bloomsbury USA |url=https://archive.org/details/republicanromana00seku_961 |url-access=limited |isbn=1-85532-598-5}}</ref> 
The relatively low ratio of horsemen to infantry does not mean that the utility of cavalry should be underestimated, as its strategic role in scouting, skirmishing, and outpost duties was crucial to the Romans' capability to conduct operations over long distances in hostile or unfamiliar territory. On some occasions Roman cavalry also proved its ability to strike a decisive tactical blow against a weakened or unprepared enemy, such as the final charge at the [[Battle of Aquilonia]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Nick |last=Sekunda |pages=37–38 |title=Early Roman Armies |date=1995 |publisher=Bloomsbury USA |isbn=1-85532-513-6}}</ref>

After defeats such as the [[Battle of Carrhae]], the Romans learned the importance of large cavalry formations from the [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Nick|last=Negin|page=6|title=Roman heavy Cavalry (1) Cataphractarii & Clibanarii, 1st Century BC–5th Century AD.|date= 2018|publisher=Bloomsbury USA |isbn=978-1-4728-3004-3}}</ref> 
At the same time heavy spears and shields modelled on those favoured by the horsemen of the Greek city-states were adopted to replace the lighter weaponry of early Rome.<ref>{{cite book |first=Nick |last=Sekunda |page=[https://archive.org/details/republicanromana00seku_961/page/n38 38] |title=Republican Roman Army 200–104 BC |year=1996 |publisher=Bloomsbury USA |url=https://archive.org/details/republicanromana00seku_961 |url-access=limited |isbn=1-85532-598-5}}</ref> These improvements in tactics and equipment reflected those of a thousand years earlier when the first Iranians to reach the [[Iranian Plateau]] forced the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] to undertake similar reform. Nonetheless, the Romans would continue to rely mainly on their [[heavy infantry]] supported by auxiliary cavalry.

===Late Roman Empire and the Migration Period===
[[File:Roman Cavalry 1.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Reenactor as a Roman [[Auxiliaries (Roman military)|auxiliary]] cavalryman]]

In the army of the late [[Roman Empire]], cavalry played an increasingly important role. The [[Spatha]], the classical sword throughout most of the 1st millennium was adopted as the standard model for the Empire's cavalry forces. By the 6th century these had evolved into lengthy straight weapons influenced by Persian and other eastern patterns.<ref>{{cite book |first=Andry |last=Negin|page=26|title=Roman Heavy Cavalry (2)|date=2020|publisher=Bloomsbury USA |isbn=978-1-4728-3950-3}}</ref> Other specialist weapons during this period included javelins, long reaching lancers, axes and maces.<ref>{{cite book|first=Ross|last=Cowan|page=31|title=Roman Legionary AD 284-337|date=21 April 2015 |publisher=Bloomsbury USA |isbn=978-1-4728-0666-6}}</ref>

The most widespread employment of heavy cavalry at this time was found in the forces of the Iranian empires, the [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]]s and their [[Persians|Persian]] [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] successors. Both, but especially the former, were famed for the [[cataphract]] (fully armored cavalry armed with lances) even though the majority of their forces consisted of lighter [[horse archer]]s. The West first encountered this eastern heavy cavalry during the [[Hellenistic period]] with further intensive contacts during the eight centuries of the [[Roman–Persian Wars]]. At first the Parthians' mobility greatly confounded the Romans, whose armoured close-order infantry proved unable to match the speed of the Parthians. However, later the Romans would successfully adapt such heavy armor and cavalry tactics by creating their own units of cataphracts and ''clibanarii''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.historynet.com/mhq/blromespersianmirage/ |title=Roman-Persian Wars |work=Historynet.com |date=12 June 2006 |access-date=November 25, 2012 |archive-date=29 May 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060529073411/http://www.historynet.com/mhq/blromespersianmirage/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The decline of the Roman infrastructure made it more difficult to field large infantry forces, and during the 4th and 5th centuries cavalry began to take a more dominant role on the European battlefield, also in part made possible by the appearance of new, larger breeds of horses. The replacement of the Roman [[horse tack|saddle]] by variants on the Scythian model, with [[pommel (saddle)|pommel]] and cantle,<ref>The raised rear part of a saddle</ref> was also a significant factor as was the adoption of [[stirrup]]s and the concomitant increase in stability of the rider's seat. Armored cataphracts began to be deployed in Eastern Europe and the Near East, following the precedents established by [[History of Iran|Persia]]n forces, as the main striking force of the armies in contrast to the earlier roles of cavalry as scouts, raiders, and outflankers.<ref>{{cite book |first=Andry |last=Negin|pages=28–30|title=Roman Heavy Cavalry (1)|date= 2018|publisher=Bloomsbury USA |isbn=978-1-4728-3004-3}}</ref>

The late-Roman cavalry tradition of organized units in a standing army differed fundamentally from the nobility of the Germanic invaders—individual warriors who could afford to provide their own horses and equipment. While there was no direct linkage with these predecessors the early medieval knight also developed as a member of a social and martial elite, able to meet the considerable expenses required by his role from grants of land and other incomes.<ref>{{cite book|first=Peter |last=Newark |pages=23–24|title=Sabre & Lance. An Illustrated History of Cavalry|year=1987|publisher=Blandford Press |isbn=0-7137-1813-7}}</ref>