Editing Causes of climate change (section)

== Human-caused influences ==
[[File:Greenhouse Effect (2017 NASA data).svg|thumb|Energy flows between space, the atmosphere, and Earth's surface. Rising greenhouse gas levels are contributing to an [[Earth's energy imbalance|energy imbalance]].]]
Factors affecting Earth's climate can be broken down into [[Climate system#External climate forcing|forcings]], [[Global warming#Climate change feedbacks|feedbacks]] and [[Climate variability and change#Internal variability|internal variations]].<ref name="nrc2008">{{cite book |author=US National Research Council |url=http://americasclimatechoices.org/climate_change_2008_final.pdf |title=Understanding and responding to climate change: Highlights of National Academies Reports, 2008 edition |publisher=National Academy of Sciences |year=2008 |location=Washington D.C. |access-date=20 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111213210836/http://americasclimatechoices.org/climate_change_2008_final.pdf |archive-date=13 December 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{Rp|7|date=November 2012}} Four main lines of evidence support the dominant role of human activities in recent climate change:<ref name="epa endangerment fact sheet">{{cite web |last=<!--not specified--> |year=2009 |title=EPA's Endangerment Finding Climate Change Facts |url=https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=P100BVZS.txt |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171223102430/https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=P100BVZS.txt |archive-date=23 December 2017 |access-date=22 December 2017 |website=National Service Center for Environmental Publications (NSCEP) |id=Report ID: 430F09086}}</ref> 
# A [[physics|physical]] understanding of the [[climate system]]: greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established.
# There are historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in [[global surface temperature]] are unusual.
# Advanced [[climate model]]s are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included.
# Observations of natural forces, such as [[Solar activity and climate|solar]] and volcanic activity, show that cannot explain the observed warming. For example, an increase in solar activity would have warmed the entire atmosphere, yet only the lower atmosphere has warmed.{{sfn|USGCRP|2009|p=20}}
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=== Greenhouse gases ===
[[File:1979- Radiative forcing - climate change - global warming - EPA NOAA.svg|thumb|Warming influence of atmospheric greenhouse gases has nearly doubled since 1979, with carbon dioxide and methane being the dominant drivers.<ref name=NOAA_AGGI_2023>{{cite web |title=The NOAA Annual Greenhouse Gas Index (AGGI) |url=https://gml.noaa.gov/aggi/aggi.html |website=NOAA.gov |publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241005195609/https://gml.noaa.gov/aggi/aggi.html |archive-date=5 October 2024 |date=2024 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
{{Main|Greenhouse gas|Greenhouse gas emissions|Greenhouse effect}}
[[Greenhouse gas]]es are transparent to [[sunlight]], and thus allow it to pass through the atmosphere to heat the Earth's surface. The Earth [[Radiative cooling|radiates it as heat]], and greenhouse gases absorb a portion of it. This absorption slows the rate at which heat escapes into space, trapping heat near the Earth's surface and warming it over time.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Causes of Climate Change|author=NASA |url=https://climate.nasa.gov/causes|website=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|access-date=8 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190508000022/https://climate.nasa.gov/causes/|archive-date=8 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> While [[water vapour]] and clouds are the biggest contributors to the greenhouse effect, they primarily change as a function of temperature. Therefore, they are considered to be [[feedback]]s that change [[climate sensitivity]]. On the other hand, gases such as {{CO2}}, [[tropospheric ozone]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Bin |last2=Shugart |first2=Herman H |last3=Lerdau |first3=Manuel T |date=2017-08-01 |title=Sensitivity of global greenhouse gas budgets to tropospheric ozone pollution mediated by the biosphere |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/aa7885 |journal=Environmental Research Letters |volume=12 |issue=8 |pages=084001 |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/aa7885 |bibcode=2017ERL....12h4001W |issn=1748-9326 |quote=Ozone acts as a greenhouse gas in the lowest layer of the atmosphere, the troposphere (as opposed to the stratospheric ozone layer)|doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Chlorofluorocarbon|CFCs]] and [[nitrous oxide]] are added or removed independently from temperature. Hence, they are considered to be [[Radiative forcing|external forcings]] that change global temperatures.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schmidt |first1=Gavin A. |last2=Ruedy |first2=Reto A. |last3=Miller |first3=Ron L. |last4=Lacis |first4=Andy A. |date=2010-10-27 |title=Attribution of the present-day total greenhouse effect |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2010JD014287 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres |language=en |volume=115 |issue=D20 |doi=10.1029/2010JD014287 |bibcode=2010JGRD..11520106S |issn=0148-0227}}</ref><ref>Walsh, J., D. Wuebbles, K. Hayhoe, J. Kossin, K. Kunkel, G. Stephens, P. Thorne, R. Vose, M. Wehner, J. Willis, D. Anderson, V. Kharin, T. Knutson, F. Landerer, T. Lenton, J. Kennedy, and R. Somerville, 2014: [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292028114_Appendix_3_Climate_Science_Supplement_Climate_Change_Impacts_in_the_United_States_The_Third_National_Climate_Assessment Appendix 3: Climate Science Supplement. Climate Change Impacts in the United States: The Third National Climate Assessment], J. M. Melillo, Terese (T.C.) Richmond, and G. W. Yohe, Eds., U.S. Global Change Research Program, 735-789. doi:10.7930/J0KS6PHH</ref>{{Rp|742|date=November 2012}}
[[File:Carbon Dioxide 800kyr.svg|thumb|{{CO2}} concentrations over the last 800,000 years as measured from ice cores<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lüthi |first1=Dieter |last2=Le Floch |first2=Martine |last3=Bereiter |first3=Bernhard |last4=Blunier |first4=Thomas |last5=Barnola |first5=Jean-Marc |last6=Siegenthaler |first6=Urs |last7=Raynaud |first7=Dominique |last8=Jouzel |first8=Jean |last9=Fischer |first9=Hubertus |last10=Kawamura |first10=Kenji |last11=Stocker |first11=Thomas F. |date=May 2005 |title=High-resolution carbon dioxide concentration record 650,000–800,000 years before present |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |language=en |volume=453 |issue=7193 |pages=379–382 |doi=10.1038/nature06949 |pmid=18480821 |bibcode=2008Natur.453..379L |s2cid=1382081 |issn=0028-0836|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fischer |first1=Hubertus |last2=Wahlen |first2=Martin |last3=Smith |first3=Jesse |last4=Mastroianni |first4=Derek |last5=Deck |first5=Bruce |date=12 March 1999 |title=Ice Core Records of Atmospheric CO 2 Around the Last Three Glacial Terminations |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.283.5408.1712 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |language=en |volume=283 |issue=5408 |pages=1712–1714 |doi=10.1126/science.283.5408.1712 |pmid=10073931 |bibcode=1999Sci...283.1712F |issn=0036-8075}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Indermühle |first1=Andreas |last2=Monnin |first2=Eric |last3=Stauffer |first3=Bernhard |last4=Stocker |first4=Thomas F. |last5=Wahlen |first5=Martin |date=1 March 2000 |title=Atmospheric CO 2 concentration from 60 to 20 kyr BP from the Taylor Dome Ice Core, Antarctica |url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/1999GL010960 |journal=[[Geophysical Research Letters]] |language=en |volume=27 |issue=5 |pages=735–738 |doi=10.1029/1999GL010960|bibcode=2000GeoRL..27..735I |s2cid=18942742}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Etheridge |first1=D. |last2=Steele |first2=L. |last3=Langenfelds |first3=R. |last4=Francey |first4=R. |last5=Barnola |first5=J.-M. |last6=Morgan |first6=V. |date=1998 |title=Historical CO2 Records from the Law Dome DE08, DE08-2, and DSS Ice Cores |url=https://cdiac.ess-dive.lbl.gov/trends/co2/lawdome.html |access-date=20 November 2022 |website=Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory |agency=[[U.S. Department of Energy]]}}</ref> (blue/green) and directly<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Keeling |first1=C. |author-link=Charles David Keeling |last2=Whorf |first2=T. |date=2004 |title=Atmospheric CO2 Records from Sites in the SIO Air Sampling Network |url=https://cdiac.ess-dive.lbl.gov/trends/co2/sio-keel.html |access-date=20 November 2022 |website=[[Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center]], [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]] |agency=[[U.S. Department of Energy]]}}</ref> (black)]]
Human activity since the [[Industrial Revolution]] (about 1750), mainly extracting and burning fossil fuels ([[coal]], [[Petroleum|oil]], and [[natural gas]]), has increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, resulting in a [[radiative forcing|radiative imbalance]]. Over the past 150 years human activities have released increasing quantities of greenhouse gases into the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]]. By 2019, the [[Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere|concentrations of {{CO2}}]] and methane had increased by about 48% and 160%, respectively, since 1750.<ref>{{Harvnb|WMO|2021|p=8}}.</ref> These {{CO2}} levels are higher than they have been at any time during the last 2 million years. [[Atmospheric methane|Concentrations of methane]] are far higher than they were over the last 800,000 years.{{Sfn|IPCC AR6 WG1 Technical Summary|2021|p=TS-35}}

This has led to increases in mean global temperature, or [[global warming]]. The likely range of human-induced surface-level air warming by 2010–2019 compared to levels in 1850–1900 is 0.8&nbsp;°C to 1.3&nbsp;°C, with a best estimate of 1.07&nbsp;°C. This is close to the observed overall warming during that time of 0.9&nbsp;°C to 1.2&nbsp;°C. Temperature changes during that time were likely only ±0.1&nbsp;°C due to natural forcings and ±0.2&nbsp;°C due to variability in the climate.{{r|AR6WG1CH3b <!--NOTE:This should be the same source defined in the next reference as "AR6WG1CH3" but for some reason, without the "b" appended here, the combination of citation templates acts as though that reference name is being defined twice, rather than defined in the next paragraph and simply invoked here.  I can't figure out how to fix it to get the correct citation information to display.  User:W.stanovsky 9/26/22-->|p=3, 443|a=The IPCC in this report uses "likely" to indicate a statement with an assessed probability of 66% to 100%.{{Cite book  |ref={{harvid|IPCC AR6 WG1 Summary for Policymakers|2021}} |chapter= Summary for Policymakers |chapter-url= https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_SPM_final.pdf |author=IPCC |author-link=IPCC |year=2021 |title={{Harvnb|IPCC AR6 WG1|2021}} |page= 4 n.4 |isbn= 978-92-9169-158-6}}}}

Global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2019 were [[Global warming potential|equivalent to]] 59&nbsp;billion tonnes of {{CO2}}. Of these emissions, 75% was {{CO2}}, 18% was [[methane]], 4% was nitrous oxide, and 2% was [[fluorinated gases]].<ref name=":1">IPCC, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_SummaryForPolicymakers.pdf Summary for Policymakers] [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, A. Reisinger, R. Slade, R. Fradera, M. Pathak, A. Al Khourdajie, M. Belkacemi, R. van Diemen, A. Hasija, G. Lisboa, S. Luz, J. Malley, D. McCollum, S. Some, P. Vyas, (eds.)]. In: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/ Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van Diemen, D. McCollum, M. Pathak, S. Some, P. Vyas, R. Fradera, M. Belkacemi, A. Hasija, G. Lisboa, S. Luz, J. Malley, (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA. doi: 10.1017/9781009157926.001.</ref>{{Rp|7|date=November 2012}} 
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==== Carbon dioxide ====
{{Main|Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere}}
[[File:CO2 Emissions by Source Since 1880.svg|thumb|The [[Global Carbon Project]] shows how additions to {{CO2}} since 1880 have been caused by different sources ramping up one after another.]]
[[File:Mauna Loa CO2 monthly mean concentration.svg|thumb|The [[Keeling Curve]] shows the long-term increase of atmospheric [[carbon dioxide]] ({{CO2}}) concentrations since 1958.]]
{{CO2}} emissions primarily come from burning fossil fuels to provide energy for [[transport]], manufacturing, [[Heating#Energy sources|heating]], and electricity.<ref>{{cite web |date=18 September 2020 |last1=Ritchie |first1=Hannah |author1-link=Hannah Ritchie |title=Sector by sector: where do global greenhouse gas emissions come from? |website=[[Our World in Data]] |url=https://ourworldindata.org/ghg-emissions-by-sector |access-date=28 October 2020}}</ref> Additional {{CO2}} emissions come from [[deforestation and climate change|deforestation]] and [[Industrial processes#Chemical processes by main basic material|industrial processes]], which include the {{CO2}} released by the chemical reactions for [[Cement#Chemistry|making cement]], [[Blast furnace#Process engineering and chemistry|steel]], [[Hall–Héroult process|aluminum]], and [[haber process|fertiliser]].<ref>{{harvnb|Olivier|Peters|2019|p=17}}; {{harvnb|Our World in Data, 18 September|2020}}; {{harvnb|EPA|2020|ps=: Greenhouse gas emissions from industry primarily come from burning fossil fuels for energy, as well as greenhouse gas emissions from certain chemical reactions necessary to produce goods from raw materials}}; {{cite web|title=Redox, extraction of iron and transition metals|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zv7f3k7/revision/2|quote=Hot air (oxygen) reacts with the coke (carbon) to produce carbon dioxide and heat energy to heat up the furnace. Removing impurities: The calcium carbonate in the limestone thermally decomposes to form calcium oxide. calcium carbonate → calcium oxide + carbon dioxide}}; {{harvnb|Kvande|2014|ps=: Carbon dioxide gas is formed at the anode, as the carbon anode is consumed upon reaction of carbon with the oxygen ions from the alumina (Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>). Formation of carbon dioxide is unavoidable as long as carbon anodes are used, and it is of great concern because CO<sub>2</sub> is a greenhouse gas}}</ref>

{{CO2}} is absorbed and emitted naturally as part of the [[carbon cycle]], through animal and plant [[respiratory system|respiration]], [[Volcano|volcanic eruptions]], and ocean-atmosphere exchange.<ref name="EPAExplainer">{{cite web |date=28 June 2012 |url=http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/science/causes.html#greenhouseeffect |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170308003615/https://www.epa.gov/climate-change-science/causes-climate-change |archive-date=8 March 2017 |url-status=dead |title=Causes of Climate Change: The Greenhouse Effect causes the atmosphere to retain heat |author=US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) |publisher=EPA |access-date=1 July 2013}}</ref> Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels and changes in land use (see below), release large amounts of carbon to the atmosphere, causing {{CO2}} concentrations in the atmosphere to rise.<ref name="EPAExplainer"/><ref>See also: {{citation |volume=2. Validity of Observed and Measured Data |url=http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/endangerment/comments/volume2.html#1 |title=2.1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Concentrations |access-date=1 July 2013 |archive-date=27 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827230525/https://www3.epa.gov/climatechange/endangerment/comments/volume2.html#1 |url-status=live }}, in {{harvnb|EPA|2009}}</ref>

The high-accuracy measurements of atmospheric {{CO2}} concentration, initiated by [[Charles David Keeling]] in 1958, constitute the master time series documenting the changing composition of the [[Atmosphere of Earth|atmosphere]].<ref name="le treut 2007 CO2 fingerprint">{{citation |author=Le Treut, H. |chapter-url=http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/ch1s1-3.html#1-3-1 |chapter=1.3.1 The Human Fingerprint on Greenhouse Gases |title=Historical Overview of Climate Change Science |display-authors=etal |access-date=18 August 2012 |archive-date=29 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111229060759/http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/ch1s1-3.html#1-3-1 |url-status=dead}}, in {{Harvnb|IPCC AR4 WG1|2007}}.</ref> These data, known as the [[Keeling Curve]], have iconic status in climate change science as evidence of the effect of human activities on the chemical composition of the global atmosphere.<ref name="le treut 2007 CO2 fingerprint"/>

Keeling's initial 1958 measurements showed 313 parts per million by volume ([[Parts-per notation#Mass fraction vs. mole fraction vs. volume fraction|ppm]]). Atmospheric {{CO2}} concentrations, commonly written "ppm", are measured in parts-per-million by volume ([[Parts-per notation#Mass fraction vs. mole fraction vs. volume fraction|ppmv]]). In May 2019, the concentration of {{CO2}} in the atmosphere reached 415&nbsp;ppm. The last time when it reached this level was 2.6–5.3&nbsp;million years ago. Without human intervention, it would be 280&nbsp;ppm.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rosane |first1=Olivia |title=CO2 Levels Top 415 PPM for First Time in Human History |url=https://www.ecowatch.com/co2-levels-top-415-ppm-2637007719.html |access-date=14 May 2019 |agency=Ecowatch |date=13 May 2019 |archive-date=14 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514143012/https://www.ecowatch.com/co2-levels-top-415-ppm-2637007719.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2022–2024, the concentration of {{CO2}} in the atmosphere increased faster than ever before according to [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]], as a result of sustained emissions and [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation|El Niño]] conditions.<ref>{{cite web |title=During a year of extremes, carbon dioxide levels surge faster than ever |url=https://www.noaa.gov/news-release/during-year-of-extremes-carbon-dioxide-levels-surge-faster-than-ever |website=Home National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |access-date=2 July 2024}}</ref>
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==== Methane and nitrous oxide ====
[[File:The Global Methane Budget 2008–2017.png|thumb|Main sources of global methane emissions (2008–2017) according to the [[Global Carbon Project]]<ref name="Saunois_2020">{{cite journal |last1=Saunois |first1=M. |last2=Stavert |first2=A.R. |last3=Poulter |first3=B. |display-authors=etal |date=July 15, 2020 |title=The Global Methane Budget 2000–2017 |url=https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/12/1561/2020/ |journal=Earth System Science Data  |language=en |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=1561–1623 |bibcode=2020ESSD...12.1561S |doi=10.5194/essd-12-1561-2020 |issn=1866-3508 |access-date=28 August 2020 |doi-access=free|hdl=1721.1/124698 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>|right]]
Methane emissions [[enteric fermentation|come from livestock]], manure, [[Environmental impact of rice cultivation|rice cultivation]], landfills, wastewater, and [[coal seam gas|coal mining]], as well as [[fugitive gas emissions|oil and gas extraction]].<ref>{{harvnb|EPA|2020}}; {{harvnb|Global Methane Initiative|2020|ps=: Estimated Global Anthropogenic Methane Emissions by Source, 2020: [[Enteric fermentation]] (27%), Manure Management (3%), Coal Mining (9%), [[Municipal Solid Waste]] (11%), Oil & Gas (24%), [[Wastewater]] (7%), [[Rice|Rice Cultivation]] (7%)}}</ref> Nitrous oxide emissions largely come from the microbial decomposition of [[fertilizer|fertiliser]].<ref>{{harvnb|EPA|2019|ps=: Agricultural activities, such as fertilizer use, are the primary source of N<sub>2</sub>O emissions}}; {{harvnb|Davidson|2009|ps=: 2.0% of manure nitrogen and 2.5% of fertilizer nitrogen was converted to nitrous oxide between 1860 and 2005; these percentage contributions explain the entire pattern of increasing nitrous oxide concentrations over this period}}</ref>

[[Methane]] and to a lesser extent [[nitrous oxide]] are also major forcing contributors to the [[greenhouse effect]]. The [[Kyoto Protocol]] lists these together with [[hydrofluorocarbon]] (HFCs), [[Fluorocarbon|perfluorocarbons]] (PFCs), and [[sulfur hexafluoride]] (SF<sub>6</sub>),<ref name="kyoto">{{Cite web |title=The Kyoto Protocol |publisher=[[UNFCCC]] |url=http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.html |access-date=9 September 2007 |archive-date=25 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090825212122/http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.html |url-status=live }}</ref> which are entirely artificial gases, as contributors to radiative forcing. The chart at right attributes anthropogenic greenhouse gas [[Air pollution|emissions]] to eight main economic sectors, of which the largest contributors are [[power station]]s (many of which burn coal or other [[fossil fuel]]s), industrial processes, transportation [[fuel]]s (generally [[fossil fuel]]s), and agricultural by-products (mainly methane from [[enteric fermentation]] and nitrous oxide from [[fertilizer]] use).<ref>{{citation |title=7. Projecting the Growth of Greenhouse-Gas Emissions |url=http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/d/Chapter_7_Projecting_the_Growth_of_Greenhouse-Gas_Emissions.pdf |pages=171–4 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104032244/http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/d/Chapter_7_Projecting_the_Growth_of_Greenhouse-Gas_Emissions.pdf |archive-date=4 November 2012 |df=dmy-all}}, in [http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100407172811/http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/stern_review_report.htm Stern Review Report on the Economics of Climate Change] (pre-publication edition) (2006)</ref>
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=== Aerosols ===
[[File:Bellouin_2019_aerosol_cloud_interactions.jpg|thumb|Air pollution has substantially increased the presence of aerosols in the atmosphere when compared to the preindustrial background levels. Different types of particles have different effects, but overall, cooling from aerosols formed by [[sulfur dioxide]] emissions has the overwhelming impact. However, the complexity of aerosol interactions in atmospheric layers makes the exact strength of cooling very difficult to estimate.<ref name="Bellouin2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Bellouin |first1=N. |last2=Quaas |first2=J. |last3=Gryspeerdt |first3=E. |last4=Kinne |first4=S. |last5=Stier |first5=P. |last6=Watson-Parris |first6=D. |last7=Boucher |first7=O. |last8=Carslaw |first8=K. S. |last9=Christensen |first9=M. |last10=Daniau |first10=A.-L. |last11=Dufresne |first11=J.-L. |last12=Feingold |first12=G. |last13=Fiedler |first13=S. |last14=Forster |first14=P. |last15=Gettelman |first15=A. |last16=Haywood |first16=J. M. |last17=Lohmann |first17=U. |last18=Malavelle |first18=F. |last19=Mauritsen |first19=T. |last20=McCoy |first20= D. T. |last21=Myhre |first21=G. |last22=Mülmenstädt |first22=J. |last23=Neubauer |first23=D. |last24=Possner |first24=A. |last25=Rugenstein |first25=M. |last26=Sato |first26=Y. |last27=Schulz |first27=M. |last28=Schwartz |first28=S. E. |last29=Sourdeval |first29=O. |last30=Storelvmo |first30= T. |last31=Toll |first31=V. |last32=Winker |first32=D. |last33=Stevens |first33=B. |date=1 November 2019 |title=Bounding Global Aerosol Radiative Forcing of Climate Change |journal=Reviews of Geophysics |volume=58 |issue=1 |page=e2019RG000660 |doi=10.1029/2019RG000660 |pmid=32734279 |pmc=7384191 }}</ref> ]]
Air pollution, in the form of [[Particulates#Climate effects|aerosols, affects the climate]] on a large scale.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McNeill |first=V. Faye |date=2017 |title=Atmospheric Aerosols: Clouds, Chemistry, and Climate |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-060816-101538 |journal=Annual Review of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering |language=en |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=427–444 |doi=10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-060816-101538 |pmid=28415861 |issn=1947-5438|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Samset |first1=B. H. |last2=Sand |first2=M. |last3=Smith |first3=C. J. |last4=Bauer |first4=S. E. |last5=Forster |first5=P. M. |last6=Fuglestvedt |first6=J. S. |last7=Osprey |first7=S. |last8=Schleussner |first8=C.-F. |date=2018 |title=Climate Impacts From a Removal of Anthropogenic Aerosol Emissions |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |language=en |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=1020–1029 |doi=10.1002/2017GL076079 |issn=0094-8276 |pmc=7427631 |pmid=32801404|bibcode=2018GeoRL..45.1020S }}</ref> Aerosols scatter and absorb solar radiation. From 1961 to 1990, a gradual reduction in the amount of [[irradiance|sunlight reaching the Earth's surface]] was observed. This phenomenon is popularly known as ''[[global dimming]]'',<ref>{{harvnb|IPCC AR5 WG1 Ch2|2013|p=183}}.</ref> and is primarily attributed to [[sulfate]] aerosols produced by the combustion of fossil fuels with heavy [[sulfur]] concentrations like [[coal]] and [[bunker fuel]].<ref name="Quaas2022" /> Smaller contributions come from [[black carbon]], organic carbon from combustion of fossil fuels and biofuels, and from anthropogenic dust.<ref>{{harvnb|He|Wang|Zhou|Wild|2018}}; {{Harvnb|Storelvmo|Phillips|Lohmann|Leirvik|2016}}</ref><ref name="NASA2007">{{cite news |date=15 March 2007 |title=Global 'Sunscreen' Has Likely Thinned, Report NASA Scientists |publisher=[[NASA]] |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2007/aerosol_dimming.html |access-date=13 March 2024 |archive-date=22 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222142212/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2007/aerosol_dimming.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=18 February 2021 |title=Aerosol pollution has caused decades of global dimming |url=https://news.agu.org/press-release/aerosol-pollution-caused-decades-of-global-dimming/ |website=[[American Geophysical Union]] |access-date=18 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327143716/https://news.agu.org/press-release/aerosol-pollution-caused-decades-of-global-dimming/ |archive-date=27 March 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title=Double Trouble of Air Pollution by Anthropogenic Dust |year=2022 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.1c04779 |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.1c04779|last1=Xia |first1=Wenwen |last2=Wang |first2=Yong |last3=Chen |first3=Siyu |last4=Huang |first4=Jianping |last5=Wang |first5=Bin |last6=Zhang |first6=Guang J. |last7=Zhang |first7=Yue |last8=Liu |first8=Xiaohong |last9=Ma |first9=Jianmin |last10=Gong |first10=Peng |last11=Jiang |first11=Yiquan |last12=Wu |first12=Mingxuan |last13=Xue |first13=Jinkai |last14=Wei |first14=Linyi |last15=Zhang |first15=Tinghan |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=761–769 |pmid=34941248 |bibcode=2022EnST...56..761X |hdl=10138/341962 |s2cid=245445736 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Dimming Dilemma |date=4 June 2020 |url=https://www.scientistswarning.org/2020/06/04/dimming-dilemma/}}</ref> Globally, aerosols have been declining since 1990 due to pollution controls, meaning that they no longer mask greenhouse gas warming as much.<ref>{{harvnb|Wild|Gilgen|Roesch|Ohmura|2005}}; {{Harvnb|Storelvmo|Phillips|Lohmann|Leirvik|2016}}; {{harvnb|Samset|Sand|Smith|Bauer|2018}}.</ref><ref name="Quaas2022" />

Aerosols also have indirect effects on the [[Earth's energy budget]]. Sulfate aerosols act as [[cloud condensation nuclei]] and lead to clouds that have more and smaller cloud droplets. These clouds reflect solar radiation more efficiently than clouds with fewer and larger droplets.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Twomey |first=S. |date=1977 |title=The Influence of Pollution on the Shortwave Albedo of Clouds |url=http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/1520-0469(1977)0342.0.CO;2 |journal=Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences |language=en |volume=34 |issue=7 |pages=1149–1152 |doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1977)034<1149:TIOPOT>2.0.CO;2 |bibcode=1977JAtS...34.1149T |issn=0022-4928 |doi-access=free }}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> They also reduce the [[Cloud physics#Collision-coalescence|growth of raindrops]], which makes clouds more reflective to incoming sunlight.<ref>{{harvnb|Albrecht|1989}}.</ref> Indirect effects of aerosols are the largest uncertainty in [[radiative forcing]].<ref name="NCAR4_ch2">{{cite book  |first1=D. W. |last1=Fahey  |first2=S. J. |last2=Doherty |first3=K. A. |last3=Hibbard |first4=A. |last4=Romanou 
 |first5=P. C. |last5=Taylor |year=2017  |title=National Climate Assessment |chapter=Chapter 2: Physical Drivers of Climate Change |chapter-url=https://science2017.globalchange.gov/downloads/CSSR_Ch2_Physical_Drivers.pdf }}</ref>

While aerosols typically limit global warming by reflecting sunlight, [[black carbon]] in [[soot]] that falls on snow or ice can contribute to global warming. Not only does this increase the absorption of sunlight, it also increases melting and sea-level rise.<ref>{{harvnb|Ramanathan|Carmichael|2008}}; {{harvnb|RIVM|2016}}.</ref> Limiting new black carbon deposits in the Arctic could reduce global warming by 0.2&nbsp;°C by 2050.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sand |first1=M. |last2=Berntsen |first2=T. K. |last3=von Salzen |first3=K. |last4=Flanner |first4=M. G. |last5=Langner |first5=J. |last6=Victor |first6=D. G. |date=2016 |title=Response of Arctic temperature to changes in emissions of short-lived climate forcers |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate2880 |journal=Nature Climate Change |language=en |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=286–289 |doi=10.1038/nclimate2880 |bibcode=2016NatCC...6..286S |issn=1758-678X}}</ref>
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===Land surface changes===
{{Further|Climate change#Land surface changes}}
[[File:20210331 Global tree cover loss - World Resources Institute.svg|thumb |The rate of global tree cover loss has approximately doubled since 2001, to an annual loss approaching an area the size of Italy.<ref>{{cite news |ref={{harvid|World Resources Institute, 31 March|2021}}
 |last1=Butler |first1=Rhett A.
 |title=Global forest loss increases in 2020
 |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/global-forest-loss-increases-in-2020-but-pandemics-impact-unclear/
 |work=Mongabay
 |date=31 March 2021
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210401022404/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/global-forest-loss-increases-in-2020-but-pandemics-impact-unclear/
 |archive-date=1 April 2021
|url-status=live }} ● Data from {{cite web |title=Indicators of Forest Extent / Forest Loss |url=https://research.wri.org/gfr/forest-extent-indicators/forest-loss |publisher=World Resources Institute |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240527180607/https://research.wri.org/gfr/forest-extent-indicators/forest-loss |archive-date=27 May 2024  |date=4 April 2024 |url-status=live }} Chart in section titled "Annual rates of global tree cover loss have risen since 2000".</ref>]]
According to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]], around 30% of Earth's land area is largely unusable for humans ([[glacier]]s, [[desert]]s, etc.), 26% is [[forest]]s, 10% is [[shrubland]] and 34% is [[agricultural land]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ritchie |first1=Hannah |last2=Roser |first2=Max |date=2024-02-16 |title=Land Use |url=https://ourworldindata.org/land-use |journal=Our World in Data}}</ref> [[Deforestation]] is the main [[land use change]] contributor to global warming,<ref>{{harvnb|The Sustainability Consortium, 13 September|2018}}; {{harvnb|UN FAO|2016|p=18}}.</ref> Between 1750 and 2007, about one-third  of anthropogenic [[carbon dioxide|{{CO2}}]] emissions were from changes in [[land use]] - primarily from the decline in forest area and the growth in agricultural land.<ref>{{citation |author=Solomon, S. |chapter-url=http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/tssts-2-1-1.html |chapter=TS.2.1.1 Changes in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide, Methane and Nitrous Oxide |title=Technical Summary |display-authors=etal |access-date=18 August 2012 |archive-date=15 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015132903/http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/tssts-2-1-1.html |url-status=dead}}, in {{Harvnb|IPCC AR4 WG1|2007}}.</ref> primarily [[deforestation]].<ref name="Technical Summary">{{citation |author=Solomon, S. |title=Technical Summary |url=http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/ts.html |display-authors=etal |access-date=25 September 2011 |archive-date=28 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181128003303/http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/ts.html |url-status=live }}, in {{Harvnb|IPCC AR4 WG1|2007}}. {{full citation needed|date=November 2012}}</ref> as the destroyed trees release {{CO2}}, and are not replaced by new trees, removing that [[carbon sink]].<ref name="SRCCL_SPM">{{cite book |title=[[Special Report on Climate Change and Land]] |chapter=Summary for Policymakers |chapter-url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/4/2019/12/02_Summary-for-Policymakers_SPM.pdf |author=IPCC |author-link=IPCC |year=2019 |pages=3–34}}</ref> Between 2001 and 2018, 27% of deforestation was from permanent clearing to enable [[agricultural expansion]] for crops and livestock. Another 24% has been lost to temporary clearing under the [[shifting cultivation]] agricultural systems. 26% was due to [[logging]] for wood and derived products, and [[wildfire]]s have accounted for the remaining 23%.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Curtis |first1=Philip G. |last2=Slay |first2=Christy M. |last3=Harris |first3=Nancy L. |last4=Tyukavina |first4=Alexandra |last5=Hansen |first5=Matthew C. |date=2018-09-14 |title=Classifying drivers of global forest loss |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aau3445 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=361 |issue=6407 |pages=1108–1111 |doi=10.1126/science.aau3445 |pmid=30213911 |bibcode=2018Sci...361.1108C |issn=0036-8075}}</ref> Some forests have not been fully cleared, but were already degraded by these impacts. Restoring these forests also recovers their potential as a carbon sink.<ref name="Duchelle-2022">{{Cite book |author1=Garrett, L. |author2=Lévite, H. |author3=Besacier, C. |author4=Alekseeva, N. |author5=Duchelle, M. |url=https://doi.org/10.4060/cc2510en |title=The key role of forest and landscape restoration in climate action |publisher=FAO |year=2022 |isbn=978-92-5-137044-5 |location=Rome|doi=10.4060/cc2510en }}</ref>
[[File:1850-2019 Cumulative greenhouse gas emissions by region - bar chart - IPCC AR6 WG3 - Fig SPM.2b.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Cumulative land-use change contributions to {{CO2}} emissions, by region.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|Figure SPM.2b|date=November 2012}}]]
Local vegetation cover impacts how much of the sunlight gets reflected back into space ([[albedo]]), and how much [[evaporative cooling|heat is lost by evaporation]]. For instance, the change from a dark [[forest]] to grassland makes the surface lighter, causing it to reflect more sunlight. Deforestation can also modify the release of chemical compounds that influence clouds, and by changing wind patterns.<ref name="Seymour 2019">{{harvnb|World Resources Institute, 8 December|2019}}</ref> In tropic and temperate areas the net effect is to produce significant warming, and forest restoration can make local temperatures cooler.<ref name="Duchelle-2022"/> At latitudes closer to the poles, there is a cooling effect as forest is replaced by snow-covered (and more reflective) plains.<ref name="Seymour 2019" /> Globally, these increases in surface albedo have been the dominant direct influence on temperature from land use change. Thus, land use change to date is estimated to have a slight cooling effect.<ref name="IPCC Special Report: Climate change and Land p2-54">{{Harvnb|IPCC SRCCL Ch2|2019|p=172|ps=: "The global biophysical cooling alone has been estimated by a larger range of climate models and is −0.10 ± 0.14&nbsp;°C; it ranges from −0.57&nbsp;°C to +0.06°C&nbsp;... This cooling is essentially dominated by increases in surface albedo: historical land cover changes have generally led to a dominant brightening of land"}}</ref>
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====Livestock-associated emissions====
{{See also|Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture}}
[[File:World Emissions Intensity Of Agricultural Commodities (2021).svg|thumb|Meat from cattle and sheep have the highest emissions intensity of any agricultural commodity.]]
More than 18% of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions are attributed to livestock and livestock-related activities such as deforestation and increasingly fuel-intensive farming practices.<ref name="livestock">{{Cite book |last1=Steinfeld |first1=Henning |url=http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/library/key_pub/longshad/A0701E00.pdf |title=Livestock's Long Shadow |last2=Gerber |first2=Pierre |last3=Wassenaar |first3=Tom |last4=Castel |first4=Vincent |last5=Rosales |first5=Mauricio |last6=de Haan |first6=Cees |publisher=Food and Agricultural Organization of the U.N. |year=2006 |isbn=92-5-105571-8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625012113/http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/library/key_pub/longshad/A0701E00.pdf |archive-date=25 June 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Specific attributions to the livestock sector include:
* 9% of global anthropogenic [[carbon dioxide]] emissions
* 35–40% of global anthropogenic [[methane emissions]] (chiefly due to [[enteric fermentation]] and [[manure]])
* 64% of global anthropogenic [[nitrous oxide]] emissions, chiefly due to [[fertilizer]] use.<ref name="livestock" />
{{clear}}