Editing Catherine de' Medici (section)

==Marriage==
[[File:Henri & Catherine.jpg|thumb|right|Catherine and Henry's marriage, painted seventeen years after the event]]
On her visit to Rome, the Venetian envoy described Catherine as "small of stature, and thin, and without delicate features, but having the protruding eyes peculiar to the Medici family".<ref>Knecht, ''Catherine de' Medici'', p. 14.</ref> Suitors, however, lined up for her hand, including [[James&nbsp;V of Scotland]] who sent the [[John Stewart, Duke of Albany|Duke of Albany]] to Clement to conclude a marriage in April and November 1530.<ref>Hay, Denys, ed., ''The Letters of James V'', HMSO (1954), p. 173, 180–182, 189,</ref> When Francis I of France proposed his second son, [[Henry II of France|Henry, Duke of Orléans]], in early 1533, Clement jumped at the offer. Henry was a prize catch for Catherine, who, despite her wealth, was of common origin.

The wedding, a grand affair marked by extravagant display and gift-giving,<ref name=knecht/> took place in the [[Église Saint-Ferréol les Augustins]] in [[Marseille]] on 28 October 1533.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.marseille13.fr/fr/eglise-saint-ferreol-les-augustins|title=Eglise Saint-Ferréol les Augustins &#124; Marseille 13|website=www.marseille13.fr|access-date=5 December 2022|archive-date=5 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205215507/https://www.marseille13.fr/fr/eglise-saint-ferreol-les-augustins|url-status=dead}}</ref> Prince Henry danced and [[jousting|jousted]] for Catherine. The fourteen-year-old couple left their wedding ball at midnight to perform their nuptial duties. Henry arrived in the bedroom with King Francis, who is said to have stayed until the marriage was consummated. He noted that "each had shown valour in the joust".<ref name=knecht>Knecht, ''Catherine de' Medici'', 16.</ref> Clement visited the newlyweds in bed the next morning and added his blessings to the night's proceedings.

Catherine saw little of her husband in their first year of marriage, but the ladies of the court, impressed with her intelligence and keenness to please, treated her well. However, the death of her uncle Clement on 25 September 1534 undermined Catherine's standing in the French court. The next pope, Alessandro Farnese, was elected on 13 October and took the title [[Pope Paul III|Paul&nbsp;III]]. As a Farnese he felt no obligation to keep Clement's promises, broke the alliance with Francis and refused to continue paying her huge dowry.<ref>Frieda 2003, p. 47 (NY edition). Knecht 1998, p. 28, gives likely incorrect dates of 25 September 1533 for the death of Pope Clement VII and 12 October for the election of Pope Paul III.</ref> King Francis lamented, "The girl has come to me stark naked."<ref>Frieda 2003, p. 48 (NY edition): "J'ai reçu la fille toute nue." Knecht 1998, p. 28, gives the English translation ""The girl has been given to me stark naked." He cites Cloulas (''Catherine de Médicis'', 1979, p. 57), who gives the French as "J'ai eu la fille toute nue", without citing a source.</ref>

Prince Henry showed no interest in Catherine as a wife; instead, he openly took mistresses. For the first ten years of the marriage, the royal couple failed to produce any children together. In 1537, he had a brief affair with [[Filippa Duci|Philippa Duci]], who gave birth to a daughter, whom he publicly acknowledged.<ref>Knecht, ''Catherine de' Medici'', 29–30. Henry legitimised the child under the name [[Diane de France]]; he also produced at least two sons by other women (Knecht, p. 38).</ref> This proved that Henry was fertile and added to the pressure on Catherine to produce a child.

===Dauphine===
[[File:Henry II, king of France.. F Clouet.jpg|thumb|170px|right|[[Henry II of France|Henry, Duke of Orléans]], by [[Corneille de Lyon]]. During his childhood, Henry spent almost four and a half years as a hostage in Spain, an ordeal that marked him for life, leaving him introverted and gloomy.]] In 1536, Henry's older brother, [[Francis, Dauphin of France (1518-1536)|Francis]], caught a chill after a game of tennis, contracted a fever and died shortly after, leaving Henry the heir. Suspicions of poison abounded, from Catherine to Emperor Charles V.<ref name = "kxxiv" /> [[Sebastiano de Montecuccoli]] confessed under torture to poisoning the Dauphin.<ref name = "kxxiv" />

As [[Dauphine of France|dauphine]], Catherine was expected to provide a future heir to the throne.<ref name = "kxxiv">Knecht, ''Catherine de' Medici'', 29.</ref> According to the court chronicler [[Pierre de Bourdeille, seigneur de Brantôme|Brantôme]], "many people advised the king and the [[Dauphin of France|Dauphin]] to repudiate her, since it was necessary to continue the line of France".<ref>Knecht, 29.</ref> Divorce was discussed. In desperation, Catherine tried every known trick for getting pregnant, such as placing cow dung and ground stags' antlers on her "source of life", and drinking mule's urine. On 19 January 1544 she at last gave birth to a [[Francis II of France|son]], named after King Francis.

After becoming pregnant once, Catherine had no trouble doing so again. She may have owed her change of fortune to the physician [[Jean Fernel]], who may have noticed slight abnormalities in the couple's sexual organs and advised them how to solve the problem. However, he denied ever providing such advice.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=de Costa |first1=Caroline |date=Spring 2010 |title=The long barren years of Catherine de Medicis: A gynaecologist's view of history |url=https://www.ogmagazine.org.au/12/3-12/long-barren-years-catherine-de-medicis-gynaecologists-view-history/ |journal=O&G Magazine |volume=12 |issue=3 |access-date=24 November 2021}}</ref> Catherine quickly conceived again and on 2 April 1545 she bore a daughter, [[Elisabeth of Valois|Elisabeth]]. She went on to bear Henry a further eight children, seven of whom survived infancy, including the future [[Charles IX of France|Charles IX]] (born 27 June 1550); the future [[Henry III of France|Henry&nbsp;III]] (born 19 September 1551); and [[Francis, Duke of Anjou]] (born 18 March 1555), [[Claude of France (1547-1575)|Claude]] (born 12 November 1547) and [[Margaret of Valois|Margaret]] (born 14 May 1553). The long-term future of the [[House of Valois|Valois dynasty]], which had ruled France since the 14th century, seemed assured.

However, Catherine's ability to bear children failed to improve her marriage. About 1538, at the age of 19, Henry had taken as his mistress the 38-year-old [[Diane de Poitiers]],<ref>Knecht, ''Catherine de' Medici'', p. 30. Another source (Héritier 1963, p. 36) dates the beginning of their sexual relationship to late 1536 or early 1537.</ref> whom he adored for the rest of his life. Even so, he respected Catherine's status as his consort. When King Francis{{nbsp}}I died on 31 March 1547, Catherine became queen consort of France. She was crowned in the [[Basilique Saint-Denis|Basilica of Saint-Denis]] on 10 June 1549.

===Queen of France===
{{stack|[[File:KatharinavonMedici.jpg|thumb|Catherine de' Medici (age 30s), as Queen consort of France (1550s). Portrait at the [[Uffizi Gallery]]. As Catherine approached 40 years of age, a Venetian envoy essayed his impression: "Her mouth is too large and her eyes too prominent and colourless for beauty [...] but a very distinguished-looking woman, with a shapely figure, a beautiful skin and exquisitely shaped hands."]]}}
Henry allowed Catherine almost no political influence as queen.<ref>Morris, 247</ref> Although she sometimes acted as regent during his absences from France, her formal powers were strictly nominal.<ref>Knecht, ''Catherine de' Medici'', 42–43.</ref> Henry even gave the [[Château de Chenonceau|Château of Chenonceau]], which Catherine had wanted for herself, to his mistress Diane de Poitiers instead, who took her place at the center of power, dispensing patronage and accepting favors. The imperial ambassador reported that in the presence of guests, Henry would sit on Diane's lap and play the guitar, chat about politics, or fondle her breasts.<ref>Knecht, ''Catherine de' Medici'', 38.</ref> Diane never regarded Catherine as a threat. She even encouraged the king to spend more time with Catherine and sire more children.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wellman |first=Kathleen Anne |title=Queens and mistresses of Renaissance France |date=2013 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-17885-2 |location=New Haven |pages=200}}</ref>

[[File:Jeton en argent sur Catherine de Médicis.jpg|thumb|Silver [[jeton]] of Catherine de'Médici|left|upright=.75]]

In 1556, Catherine nearly died giving birth to twin daughters, Jeanne and [[Victoire of France (1556)|Victoire]]. Surgeons saved her life by breaking the legs of Jeanne, who died in her womb.<ref>Knecht, ''Catherine de' Medici'', 34.</ref> The surviving daughter, Victoire, died seven weeks later. Because their birth very nearly cost Catherine her life, the king's physician advised the king that there should be no more children; therefore, Henry{{nbsp}}II stopped visiting his wife's bedroom and spent all his time with his longtime mistress, Diane de Poitiers. Catherine had no more children.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

Henry's reign enabled the rise of the Guise brothers, [[Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine|Charles]], who became a [[cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]], and Henry's boyhood friend [[Francis, Duke of Guise|Francis]], both of whom became [[Counts and Dukes of Guise|Duke of Guise]]. Their sister [[Mary of Guise]] had married [[James V of Scotland]] in 1538 and was the mother of [[Mary, Queen of Scots]]. At the age of five and a half, Mary was brought to the French court, where she was promised to the Dauphin, Francis.<ref>Guy, 46.</ref> Catherine brought her up with her own children at the French court, while Mary of Guise governed Scotland as her daughter's [[regent]].<ref>Guy, 41.</ref>

[[File:Brazilian ball for Henry II in Rouen October 1 1550.jpg|thumb|"[[France Antarctique|Brazilian ball]]" for [[Henry II of France|Henry II]] and Catherine de' Medici in [[Rouen]], 1 October 1550, a precursor to the creation of [[France Antarctique]] in Brazil|right]]

On 3–4 April 1559 Henry signed the [[Italian War of 1551–1559|Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis]] with the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and England, ending a long period of [[Italian Wars]]. The treaty was sealed by the betrothal of Catherine's teenage daughter [[Elisabeth of Valois|Elisabeth]], aged 13, to [[Philip II of Spain]].<ref>Knecht, ''Catherine de' Medici'', 55.</ref> Their [[proxy wedding]] was celebrated in Paris on 22 June 1559. As part of the celebrations, a [[jousting]] tournament was held on 30 June 1559.<ref>{{cite book|title=Philip of Spain|url=https://archive.org/details/philipofspain00kame|url-access=registration|first=Henry|last=Kamen|author-link=Henry Kamen|page=74|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1997|isbn=9780300070811|access-date=June 8, 2024}}</ref>

King Henry took part in the jousting, sporting Diane's black-and-white colours. He defeated the dukes of Guise and Nemours, but the young [[Gabriel, comte de Montgomery]], knocked him half out of the saddle. Henry insisted on riding against Montgomery again, and this time, Montgomery's lance shattered in the king's face.<ref name="Pettegree, 154">Pettegree, 154.</ref> Henry reeled out of the clash, his face pouring blood, with splinters "of a good bigness" sticking out of his eye and head. Catherine, Diane, and Prince Francis all fainted. Henry was carried to the Château de Tournelles, where five splinters of wood were extracted from his head, one of which had pierced his eye and brain. Catherine stayed by his bedside, but Diane kept away, "for fear", in the words of a chronicler, "of being expelled by the Queen". For the next ten days, Henry's state fluctuated. At times he even felt well enough to dictate letters and listen to music. Slowly, however, he lost his sight, speech, and reason, and on 10 July 1559, he died, aged 40. From that day, Catherine took a broken lance as her emblem, inscribed with the words "''lacrymae hinc, hinc dolor''" ("from this come my tears and my pain"), and wore black [[mourning]] in memory of Henry.<ref>Knecht, ''Catherine de' Medici'', 56–58.</ref>