Editing Cathedral (section)

==History and organization of the Early Church==

===Origins and characteristics of the first cathedrals in Europe===
[[File:Roma San Giovanni in Laterano BW 2.JPG|thumb|The Patriarchal [[Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran]], [[Rome]].]]
The history of cathedrals commenced in the year 313, when the emperor [[Constantine the Great]] personally adopted Christianity and initiated the [[Peace of the Church]]. Indeed, in strict terminology, there could not have been "cathedrals" before that date, as before the 4th century there were no Christian "cathedrae"; bishops were never seated when leading congregational worship, but instead presided standing on a raised platform or ''pulpitum''. In the third century, the phrase "ascending the platform", ''ad pulpitum venire'', becomes the standard term for Christian [[ordination]]. During the siege of [[Dura Europos]] in 256, a complete Christian house church, or ''domus ecclesiae'' was entombed in a defensive bank, surviving when excavated, in places to wall-top height. The Dura church had been converted out of a large urban courtyard house of standard form, in which two rooms had been knocked together to make an assembly hall, capable of holding 60-75 standing; while a tank had been inserted in a room on the opposite side of the courtyard as a baptistery, with rich wall paintings above it. The large room was indeed found to have a raised pulpitum at one end, big enough for one person in turn to read, preach and preside from; but too low to have been surmounted by a throne, and too small to have contained an altar. Otherwise the large room had no decoration or distinctive features at all.

In 269, soon after Dura fell to the Persian army, a body of clerics assembled a charge sheet against the bishop of Antioch, [[Paul of Samosata]], in the form of an open letter. Amongst the accusations was that Paul, who had received the civil rank of ''ducenarius'' due to contacts in the imperial court, had improperly erected an enclosure, or ''secretum'', for himself in the church of Antioch; that within this enclosure he had erected a throne from which he presided in worship; and that he had trained a female choir to sing hymns of his own devising. These practices were all condemned as innovations, improperly importing the symbols of his secular Roman magistracy into church ritual; while presumptuously and blasphemously asserting that the person of the bishop in eucharistic worship is seated in the place of Christ himself. Still in a hundred years, all bishops in the Mediterranean world had cathedrals, all sat on thrones within an enclosed sanctuary space, and all had established trained choirs to enhance eucharistic worship.

The driving principle underlying this change was the acceptance by bishops, more or less willingly, of an imperial invitation to adopt and maintain the duties, dignity and insignia proper to a public [[magistrate]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Eusebius |title=Life of Constantine|page=4:27,2}}</ref> Characteristically a Roman magistrate presided from a raised throne in a large, richly decorated and aisled rectangular hall called a ''[[basilica]]''; and now bishops would do the same. The earliest of these new basilican cathedrals of which substantial remains are still visible (and maybe amongst the very earliest to be built) is below the [[Cathedral of Aquileia]] on the northern tip of the [[Adriatic]] sea. Dated from a mosaic inscription between 313 and 319, the complex consisted of two parallel east–west aisled halls of similar size; with a third smaller north–south cross-hall connecting them, which has been interpreted as the presence hall of the ''episcopium'' or bishop's residence. The three halls create an open courtyard, in which was originally located a separate baptistery. Surviving from both large basilican halls are rich mosaic pavements showing (amongst other scenes) [[Jonah and the Whale]], and a series of, mainly female, donor portraits. It appears that similar cathedrals of double-basilica and baptistry were soon afterwards erected in [[Milan]], [[Trier]] and [[Pavia]]; but that subsequently single-basilican churches became the more common cathedral model.

Constantine's declaration of imperial favour towards Christianity transformed all aspects of Christian life in the Roman Empire. From being a minority religion, largely confined to urban areas and restricted social groupings, and subject to official hostility and occasional persecution; Christianity acquired greatly expanded numbers of potential adherents of all classes, initially still within city areas, but eventually extending out to the ''[[pagus]]'', the city's rural hinterland. The consequence was a radical expansion in the buildings, funding and personnel of associated Church establishments throughout the 4th century. The first cathedrals represent this expansion in material form.

==== Buildings ====

The location and layout of the first cathedrals varied substantially from city to city, although most, as at Aquileia, tended to be sited within the city walls but away from the urban centre; certain elements are almost always found.

==== Basilicas ====
[[File:Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore - Roma.jpg|thumb|The [[Santa Maria Maggiore|Basilica of Saint Mary Major]], Rome]]
[[Basilica]]n halls had previously been characteristic of major civic complexes and military headquarters buildings; but now became the standard structure for accommodating large Christian congregations. From now on, the term basilica denotes any substantial church building. These new basilicas were wholly different in scale from earlier Christian assembly halls, as they were also different in form from any Roman non-Christian temple or religious structure. The halls were longitudinal, aisled, and flooded with light from large [[clerestory]] windows. Floors and walls were richly decorated with mosaic and inlay&nbsp;– usually in abstract or floral patterns. The two original double basilicas at Aquileia had both been about 37m by 17m in size, but within 30 years one hall was quadrupled to 73m by 31m. This expanded basilica now demonstrated three additional features that became characteristic of early cathedrals: an enclosure at the eastern end of the church surrounding the altar; a ''{{lang|el|[[synthronos]]}}'' east of the altar facing west, and consisting of a raised dais with a centrally place bishop's throne and benches either side for the clergy of his ''familia''; and a partitioned-off ''[[narthex]]'' at the western end into which ''[[catechumens]]'' would withdraw during the central act of the [[Eucharist]]ic liturgy.

==== Baptisteries ====

The baptistery in the Dura church was about 1m square and 1m deep; baptismal candidates could stand in it, but could not be immersed. In the new cathedrals, as had been the case before, only bishops baptised; and ceremonies were held not more than twice a year to allow for suitable periods of instruction. So baptisteries needed to be greatly increased in size, with associated accommodation to ensure privacy in undressing, anointing and redressing; and the baptismal tank, commonly octagonal, was now fully deep enough for total immersion, and wide enough to accommodate both the candidate and an assisting male or female deacon. Baptisteries commonly adopted centralised plan forms derived from funerary chapels; and are invariably separate from the congregational basilica.
[[File:(Albi) Palais de la Berbie, depuis le Vieux Pont.jpg|left|thumb|The {{ill|Palais de la Berbie|fr|Palais de la Berbie|lt=Palais de la Berbie,}} an episcopal palace in [[Albi]], France]]

==== Episcopium ====

No one lived in the house church at Dura; such residential facilities as the latrine and kitchen were removed in the conversion. But cathedral complexes always included an episcopal residence. Prominent amongst the charges that had been directed against [[Paul of Samosata]] had been his alleged over-familiarity with pious women. As was common, Paul had been married when elected bishop; and again, as was universally expected for a bishop, he had then ceased sexual contact with his wife and no longer cohabited with her. But his accusers charged that, by continuing to associate with other women (even without any indication of actual impropriety) he was creating an unacceptable potential for scandal. To avoid similar such occasions arising, it was necessary for the new cathedrals to create male-only living quarters for the bishop and his entire establishment; and since, in churches in the West, all [[presbyters]] and [[deacons]] were also expected to live apart from their wives after ordination, these living quarters, the ''episcopium'', were necessarily substantial in extent. In addition to eating and sleeping quarters for ordained boys and men, the episcopium also commonly provided private dining halls for the hospitality expected of the bishop's enhanced social status, a private [[Oratory (worship)|oratory]] or chapel for the bishop, and often a bath house.

===Finances===
[[File:Chartres cathedral.jpg|thumb|[[Chartres Cathedral]], France, a famous landmark that draws both pilgrims and art lovers.]]

Just as the episcopal residence was integral within the complex of cathedral buildings, so too there was no distinction between episcopal, diocesan and cathedral property and endowments. In principle, all diocesan income was paid into a common fund, and divided into four fixed shares for each main area of expenditure; the Bishop himself; the cathedral clergy; the fabric and lighting of cathedral and city churches; and charitable donations. Many diocese already held substantial endowments, but income increased enormously with the Peace of the Church; partly due to imperial subsidies in kind, but mainly from private bequests and regular private benefactions (often called 'first fruits'); although at this date, [[tithe]] was never paid to the church. In addition, many individual landowners supported private chapels and oratories on their own property; and endowed independent charitable institutions, and eventually monasteries and nunneries too.

====Bishop's share====

[[Augustine of Hippo]] estimated his personal income as being 20 times that of his father, a minor civil servant; and Augustine was by no means the wealthiest bishop in North Africa. But in accepting from Constantine the status of civil magistrates, bishops were now also committed to substantial expenditure to maintain their new style and status; and also to fulfil the associated duties, for instance in employing qualified legal assessors to support them when sitting as civil judges.

====Clergy share====
[[File:Milan Cathedral from Piazza del Duomo.jpg|thumb| The [[Milan Cathedral]] is a [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] style cathedral in Italy]]
All ordained clerics attached to the cathedral were paid through stipends from the general fund. This applied both to the clergy working directly within the cathedral itself, and also to the clergy, called ''canonici'' attached to churches founded by the bishop within the city. From the end of the 4th century, as the mission of the church extended more into rural areas, 'baptistery churches' were founded in more distant villages, so that rural populations could receive the bishop's baptism locally; and the clergy in these churches also counted as ''canonici'' and drew a regular stipend.

====Fabric share====
Plentiful donor inscriptions show that most new church building programmes; mosaics, roofs, furnishings, were financed by private donations. The costs of maintenance and lighting, however, fell on the general fund. This also applied to the churches, known as ''tituli'', served directly by the bishop's clergy, generally also including any surviving house churches from the period before the Peace of the Church and the rural baptistery churches; but not to the chapels, called ''parochiae'', established by rural landowners for the convenience of their tenants. The bishop, in respect of his civil status, was expected to contribute to public works of general benefit; aqueducts, bridges, watercourses.

====Charitable share====

In all cities, bishops dedicated substantial sums to the support of widows, orphans and the poor. Such donations had been a strong feature of the church in earlier centuries, but tended then to be specifically directed to the Christian needy. Now the charitable compass became general. Bishops were especially expected to take responsibility for raising ransom funds, where local persons had fallen captive. In addition, it was expected that each diocese would support a ''[[xenodochium]]'', a hostel for the homeless and strangers.

===Personnel===
[[File:Sicilia Noto1 tango7174.jpg|thumb|[[Noto Cathedral]], [[Sicily]], [[Italy]]]]
Just as the status of the bishop was transformed at the Peace of the Church; so too was that of the male clergy. With the bishop now resident in the ''episcopium'' the other male clergy came to be recognised as his formal ''familia'', in mark of which male clergy now received the [[tonsure]] by shaving of their heads; this being originally a Roman badge of adoption. The early church had recognised the orders of bishop, presbyter (priest) and deacon, but a range of [[minor orders]] had since grown up in addition; and all were tonsured. These orders now tended to be understood as clerical 'ranks', equivalent to those in the military, such that the male clergy are now often referred to as a "clerical militia". And as in the Roman military or civil service, promotion was expected to follow the principle of ''[[cursus honorum]]'', rising through the ranks, with the expectation that ideally, a minimum period would be served in each. The female orders of virgin, widow and (female) deacon remained explicitly outside the bishop's familia; and so they did not receive the tonsure and nor did they progress through the ''cursus honorum''. But all orders of cathedral clergy, male and female, increased dramatically in numbers. Around 540 [[Justinian]] ordered that the clerical payroll of [[Hagia Sophia]] be strictly limited to 60 presbyters, 100 male deacons, 90 subdeacons, 110 lectors, 25 singers, 100 doorkeepers and 40 female deacons; 525 in all.

====Bishops====
Bishops were at the head of the local church; but not explicitly within the ''cursus honorum'', as appointment was by election from the local clergy and people. The clergy tended to favour appointment of bishops from within the ranks of cathedral presbyters; but local lay choice often tended rather to outsiders, either a spectacular holy man, hermit or ascetic; or otherwise a senior civil servant or diplomat, who might have favourable contacts to exploit at court. But most bishops came from the ''[[curiales|curial]]'' class, that is those holding the hereditary rank of [[decurion (administrative)|decurion]] with the obligation to serve on the city council, as only persons of this class and above would be likely to have a full rhetorical education in Greek and Latin grammar; without which it was not possible for a boy raised with a knowledge only of Late Antique vernacular speech to express himself in approved classical linguistic forms.

====Priests and archpriests====
[[File:Catedral da Sé em São Paulo.jpg|thumb|[[São Paulo Cathedral]] in [[Brazil]] is a representative modern cathedral built in [[Gothic Revival architecture|Neo-Gothic]] style.]]
It was expected that the normal president at both the Eucharist and Baptism would be the bishop, who would celebrate in the cathedral and in titular churches in turn. However, in practice, the bishop needed deputies for the Eucharist and also for the [[Canonical hours|Divine Office]] of daily prayer, and this duty fell to the priests. The bishop selected a senior priest as [[archpriest]] who acted as his official deputy in all ritual matters and as head of the familia. The archpriest was also responsible for the cathedral school. After the 5th century, there were no longer state-supported secular teachers of [[rhetoric]] and [[grammar]] in the West (other than in parts of Italy) and so the church would have to educate its own.

====Deacons, subdeacons and archdeacons====

Just as the presbyters deputised for the bishop in ritual matters, so the deacons deputised in administrative and financial matters, especially in the raising and delivering of charity. At the head of the diaconate was the archdeacon; the bishop's main deputy in managerial affairs. Originally inferior in rank to the archpriest, the archdeacon by the sixth century had established clear pre-eminence. Subdeacons assisted the deacons, but unlike them were allowed to marry after ordination; consequently many clerics stopped the cursus honorum at this point, and it was not unusual for a subdeacon to be elected bishop; and even Pope.

====Doorkeepers, exorcists, lectors, acolytes and primicerius====
In practice, the first three of these orders tended to be given together, and were typically applied to boys as young as seven. These boy lectors were too young for the grammar school, but were valued as choristers, and so were included in the ''[[Schola Cantorum]]'' or choir school. Originally under the responsibility of the deacons, the organisation of choirs was reformed by Pope [[Gregory the Great]], who introduced the office of ''[[primicerius]]'' or head cantor for this purpose. This proved a vital reform; as without any comprehensive system of musical notation, the only way that sacred music could be maintained and passed on was through professional choirs of sound musical training undertaking cathedral worship&nbsp;– and such skills are not guaranteed to be present in high-ranking ecclesiastics.

====Women's orders: virgins, widows and deaconesses====

These orders had been of considerable importance in earlier centuries; but tended to be sidelined in cathedrals from the 4th century onwards. So long as adult baptism continued as a regular occurrence, female deacons would continue to be needed for that service; but otherwise the main factor maintaining these orders was a knock-on effect from the rule of continence applied to bishops, presbyters and deacons. When a man became ordained, and moved into the episcopium with the rest of the bishop's ''familia''; then there would usually also be a requirement for support to their mothers, wives and daughters; and the orders of widows and virgins respectively continued largely for this purpose.

===Functions===
[[File:Rowan Williams Bec 27may05.jpg|thumb|Former [[archbishop of Canterbury]], [[Rowan Williams]].]]
Notwithstanding wide differences over time in institutional structures and wider historical contexts; the key functions established for the first cathedrals have tended to remain as distinctive cathedral functions down the centuries; a regular cycle of choral prayer; providing a forum for civic leadership; a commitment to higher learning; and the promotion and dissemination of music.