Editing Carthage (section)

==Topography, layout, and society==
[[File:Carthage National Museum representation of city.jpg|left|thumb|Modern reconstruction of Punic Carthage. The circular harbor at the front is the [[Cothon]], the military port of Carthage, where all of Carthage's warships ([[Bireme]]s) were anchored.]]

===Overview===
Carthage was built on a [[promontory]] with sea inlets to the north and the south. The city's location made it master of the Mediterranean's maritime trade. All ships crossing the sea had to pass between [[Sicily]] and the coast of Tunisia, where Carthage was built, affording it great power and influence. Two large, artificial harbors were built within the city, one for harboring the city's prodigious navy of 220 warships and the other for mercantile trade. A walled tower overlooked both harbors. The city had massive walls, {{convert|23|mi|0|order=flip|abbr=on}} long, which was longer than the walls of comparable cities. Most of the walls were on the shore and so could be less impressive, as Carthaginian control of the sea made attack from that direction difficult. The {{convert|2.5|to|3|mi|1|order=flip|abbr=on}} of wall on the [[isthmus]] to the west were truly massive and were never penetrated.

Carthage was one of the largest cities of the [[Hellenistic period]] and was among the largest cities in preindustrial history. Whereas by AD 14, [[Rome]] had at least 750,000 inhabitants and in the following century may have reached 1&nbsp;million, the cities of [[Alexandria]] and [[Antioch]] numbered only a few hundred thousand or less.<ref name="CharlesworthEdwards2000">{{cite book|author1=Martin Percival Charlesworth|author2=Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards|author3=John Boardman|author4=Frank William Walbank|title=The Cambridge Ancient History: The fourth century B.C., 2nd ed., 1994|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WgHhAAAAMAAJ&q="Rome+was+larger"|year=2000|publisher=University Press|page=813|isbn=978-0521263351 }}</ref> According to the history of [[Herodian]], Carthage rivaled Alexandria for second place in the Roman empire.<ref name="Grant2004">{{cite book|author=Robert McQueen Grant|title=Augustus to Constantine: The Rise and Triumph of Christianity in the Roman World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d_vxEB7nT_QC&pg=PP54|year=2004|publisher=Westminster: John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-22772-2|pages=54–}}</ref>

===Layout===
The Punic Carthage was divided into four equally sized residential areas with the same layout. It had religious areas, market places, a council house, towers, a theatre, and a huge [[necropolis]]; roughly in the middle of the city stood a high citadel called the [[Byrsa]]. Surrounding Carthage were [[city walls|walls]] "of great strength" said in places to rise above 13 m, being nearly 10 m thick, according to ancient authors. To the west, three parallel walls were built. The walls altogether ran for about {{convert|33|km|abbr=off}} to encircle the city.<ref>Warmington, ''Carthage'' (1964) at 138–140, map at 139; at 273n.3, he cites the ancients: [[Appian]], [[Strabo]], [[Diodorus Siculus]], [[Polybius]].</ref><ref>Harden, ''The Phoenicians'' (1962, 2d ed. 1963), text at 34, maps at 31 and 34. According to Harden, the outer walls ran several kilometres to the west of that indicated on the map here.</ref> The heights of the Byrsa were additionally [[fortified]]; this area being the last to succumb to the [[Third Punic War|Romans in 146 BC]]. Originally the Romans had landed their army on the strip of land extending southward from the city.<ref>Picard and Picard, ''The Life and Death of Carthage'' (1968, 1969) at 395–396.</ref><ref>For an ample discussion of the ancient city: Serge Lancel, ''Carthage'' (Paris: Arthème Fayard 1992; Oxford: Blackwell 1995, 1997) at 134–172, ancient harbours at 172–192; archaic Carthage at 38–77.</ref>

Outside the city walls of Carthage is the ''Chora'' or farm lands of Carthage. ''Chora'' encompassed a limited area: the north coastal ''tell'', the lower [[Medjerda River|Bagradas river valley]] (inland from Utica), [[Cape Bon]], and the adjacent ''sahel'' on the east coast. Punic culture here achieved the introduction of agricultural sciences first developed for lands of the eastern Mediterranean, and their adaptation to local African conditions.<ref>Charles-Picard, ''Daily Life in Carthage'' (1958; 1968) at 85 (limited area), at 88 (imported skills).</ref>

The ''urban landscape'' of Carthage is known in part from ancient authors,<ref>e.g., the Greek writers: [[Appian]], [[Diodorus Siculus]], [[Polybius]]; and, the Latin: [[Livy]], [[Strabo]].</ref> augmented by modern digs and surveys conducted by archeologists. The "first urban nucleus" dating to the seventh century, in area about {{convert|10|ha|acres}}, was apparently located on low-lying lands along the coast (north of the later harbours). As confirmed by archaeological excavations, Carthage was a "creation ''ex nihilo''", built on 'virgin' land, and situated at what was then the end of a peninsula. Here among "mud brick walls and beaten clay floors" (recently uncovered) were also found extensive cemeteries, which yielded evocative grave goods like clay masks. "Thanks to this [[burial archaeology]] we know more about archaic Carthage than about any other contemporary city in the western Mediterranean." Already in the eighth century, fabric [[dyeing]] operations had been established, evident from crushed shells of [[murex]] (from which the 'Phoenician purple' was derived). Nonetheless, only a "meager picture" of the cultural life of the earliest pioneers in the city can be conjectured, and not much about housing, monuments or defenses.<ref>Serge Lancel, ''Carthage'' (Paris 1992), as translated by A. Nevill (Oxford 1997), at 38–45 and 76–77 (archaic Carthage): maps of early city at 39 and 42; burial archaeology quote at 77; short quotes at 43, 38, 45, 39; clay masks at 60–62 (photographs); terracotta and ivory figurines at 64–66, 72–75 (photographs). Ancient coastline from Utica to Carthage: map at 18.</ref><ref>Cf., B. H. Warmington, ''Carthage'' (London: Robert Hale 1960; 2d ed. 1969) at 26–31.</ref> The Roman poet [[Virgil]] (70–19 BC) imagined early Carthage, when his legendary character [[The Aeneid|Aeneas]] had arrived there:

<blockquote>
"Aeneas found, where lately huts had been,<br />
marvelous buildings, gateways, cobbled ways,<br />
and din of wagons. There the [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyrians]]<br />
were hard at work: laying courses for walls,<br />
rolling up stones to build the citadel,<br />
while others picked out building sites and plowed<br />
a boundary furrow. Laws were being enacted,<br />
magistrates and a sacred senate chosen.<br />
Here men were dredging harbors, there they laid<br />
the deep foundations of a theatre,<br />
and quarried massive pillars... ."<ref>Virgil (70–19 BC), ''[[The Aeneid]]'' [19 BC], translated by [[Robert Fitzgerald]] (New York: Random House 1983), p. 18–19 (Book I, 421–424). Cf., Lancel, ''Carthage'' (1997) p. 38. Here capitalized as prose.</ref><ref>Virgil here, however, does innocently inject his own Roman cultural notions into his imagined description, e.g., Punic Carthage evidently built no theaters ''per se''. Cf., Charles-Picard, ''Daily Life in Carthage'' (1958; 1968).</ref><br />
</blockquote>

[[File:Carthage archaeological sites map-fr.svg|thumb|Archaeological sites of modern Carthage]]

The two inner harbors, named ''[[cothon]]'' in Punic, were located in the southeast; one being commercial, and the other for war. Their definite functions are not entirely known, probably for the construction, outfitting, or repair of ships, perhaps also loading and unloading cargo.<ref>The harbours, often mentioned by ancient authors, remain an archaeological problem due to the limited, fragmented evidence found. Lancel, ''Carthage'' (1992; 1997) at 172–192 (the two harbours).</ref><ref>Harden, ''The Phoenicians'' (1962, 2d ed. 1963) at 32, 130–131.</ref><ref>Warmington, ''Carthage'' (1960, 1964) at 138.</ref> Larger [[Anchorage (maritime)|anchorages]] existed to the north and south of the city.<ref>Sebkrit er Riana to the north, and [[Lake of Tunis|El Bahira]] to the south [their modern names]. Harden, ''The Phoenicians'' (1962, 2d ed. 1963) at 31–32. Ships then could also be beached on the sand.</ref> North and west of the ''cothon'' were located several industrial areas, e.g., metalworking and pottery (e.g., for [[amphora]]), which could serve both inner harbors, and ships anchored to the south of the city.<ref>Cf., Lancel, ''Carthage'' (1992; 1997) at 139–140, city map at 138.</ref>

Considering the importance of the [[Byrsa]], the [[citadel]] area to the north,<ref>The lands immediately south of the hill is often also included by the term ''Byrsa''.</ref> our knowledge of it is patchy. Its prominent heights were the scene of fierce combat during the fiery destruction of the city in 146 BC. The Byrsa was the reported site of the Temple of [[Eshmun]] (the healing god), at the top of a stairway of sixty steps.<ref>Serge Lancel, ''Carthage. A history'' (Paris: Librairie Arthème Fayard 1992; Oxford: Blackwell 1995) at 148–152; 151 and 149 map (leveling operations on the Byrsa, circa 25 BC, to prepare for new construction), 426 (Temple of Eshmun), 443 (Byrsa diagram, circa 1859). The Byrsa had been destroyed during the [[Third Punic War]] (149–146).</ref><ref>Charles-Picard, ''Daily Life in Carthage'' (Paris 1958; London 1961, reprint Macmillan 1968) at 8 (city map showing the Temple of Eshmoun, on the eastern heights of the Byrsa).</ref> A temple of [[Tanit]] (the city's queen goddess) was likely situated on the slope of the 'lesser Byrsa' immediately to the east, which runs down toward the sea.<ref>E. S. Bouchier, ''Life and Letters in Roman Africa'' (Oxford: B. H. Blackwell 1913) at 17, and 75. The Roman temple to [[List of Roman deities|Juno Caelestis]] is said to be later erected on the site of the ruined temple to [[Tanit]].</ref> Also situated on the Byrsa were luxury homes.<ref>On the Byrsa some evidence remains of quality residential construction of the 2nd century BC. Soren, Khader, Slim, ''Carthage'' (1990) at 117.</ref>

South of the citadel, near the ''cothon'' was the ''[[tophet]]'', a special and very old [[cemetery]], which when begun lay outside the city's boundaries. Here the ''[[Carthage tophet|Salammbô]]'' was located, the ''Sanctuary of Tanit'', not a temple but an enclosure for placing stone [[stelae]]. These were mostly short and upright, carved for funeral purposes. The presence of infant skeletons from here may indicate the occurrence of child sacrifice, as claimed in the Bible and Greco-Roman sources, although there has been considerable doubt among archeologists as to this interpretation and many consider it simply a cemetery devoted to infants.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Jeffrey H. Schwartz|author2= Frank Houghton|author3= Roberto Macchiarelli|author4= Luca Bondioli|title=Skeletal Remains from Punic Carthage Do Not Support Systematic Sacrifice of Infants|journal= PLOS ONE|date=February 17, 2010 |volume= 5|issue= 2|pages= e9177|doi= 10.1371/journal.pone.0009177|pmid= 20174667|pmc= 2822869|bibcode= 2010PLoSO...5.9177S|doi-access= free}}</ref> Probably the ''tophet'' burial fields were "dedicated at an early date, perhaps by the first settlers."<ref>B. H. Warmington, ''Carthage'' (London: Robert Hale 1960; reprint Penguin 1964) at 15 (quote), 25, 141; (London: Robert Hale, 2d ed. 1969) at 27 (quote), 131–132, 133 (enclosure).</ref><ref>See the section on ''Punic religion'' below.</ref> Recent studies, on the other hand, indicate that child sacrifice was practiced by the Carthaginians.<ref name=sacrifice1>Xella, Paolo, et al. "Cemetery or sacrifice? Infant burials at the Carthage Tophet: Phoenician bones of contention." Antiquity 87.338 (2013): 1199–1207.</ref><ref name=sacrifice2>Smith, Patricia, et al. "Cemetery or sacrifice? Infant burials at the Carthage Tophet: Age estimations attest to infant sacrifice at the Carthage Tophet." Antiquity 87.338 (2013): 1191–1199.</ref>  According to K.L. Noll, many scholars believe that child sacrifice took place in Carthage.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Canaanite Religion {{!}} K. L. Noll |url=https://people.brandonu.ca/nollk/canaanite-religion/#:~:text=At%20the%20center%20of%20Canaanite,crops,%20flocks,%20and%20humans. |access-date=2024-08-26 |website=people.brandonu.ca}}</ref>

Between the sea-filled ''cothon'' for shipping and the Byrsa heights lay the ''[[agora]]'' [Greek: "market"], the city-state's central marketplace for business and commerce. The ''agora'' was also an area of public squares and plazas, where the people might formally assemble, or gather for festivals. It was the site of religious shrines, and the location of whatever were the major municipal buildings of Carthage. Here beat the heart of civic life. In this district of Carthage, more probably, the ruling [[suffet]]s presided, the council of elders convened, the tribunal of the 104 met, and justice was dispensed at trials in the open air.<ref>Cf., Warmington, ''Carthage'' (1960, 1964) at 141.</ref><ref>Modern archeologists on the site have not yet 'discovered' the ancient ''agora''. Lancel, ''Carthage'' (Paris 1992; Oxford 1997) at 141.</ref>

Early residential districts wrapped around the Byrsa from the south to the north east. Houses usually were [[whitewash]]ed and blank to the street, but within were [[courtyard]]s open to the sky.<ref>Warmington, ''Carthage'' (1960, 1964) at 142.</ref> In these neighborhoods multistory construction later became common, some up to six stories tall according to an ancient Greek author.<ref>[[Appian]] of Alexandria (c. 95 – c. 160s), ''Pomaika'' known as the ''Roman History'', at VII (''Libyca''), 128.</ref><ref>Harden, ''The Phoenicians'' (1962, 2d ed. 1963) at 133 & 229n17 (Appian cited).</ref> Several [[history of architecture|architectural]] [[floorplan]]s of homes have been revealed by recent [[Excavation (archaeology)|excavations]], as well as the general layout of several [[urban planning|city blocks]]. Stone stairs were set in the streets, and [[drainage]] was planned, e.g., in the form of soakaways leaching into the sandy soil.<ref>Lancel, ''Carthage'' (Paris 1992; Oxford 1997) at 152–172, e.g., 163–165 (floorplans), 167–171 (neighborhood diagrams and photographs).</ref> Along the Byrsa's southern slope were located not only fine old homes, but also many of the earliest grave-sites, juxtaposed in small areas, interspersed with daily life.<ref>Warmington, ''Carthage'' (1960, 1964) at 139 (map of city, re the tophet), 141.</ref>

[[Artisan]] workshops were located in the city at sites north and west of the harbours. The location of three [[metal working|metal workshops]] (implied from iron slag and other vestiges of such activity) were found adjacent to the naval and commercial harbours, and another two were further up the hill toward the Byrsa citadel. Sites of [[pottery]] [[kiln]]s have been identified, between the ''agora'' and the harbours, and further north. Earthenware often used Greek models. A [[fulling|fuller]]'s shop for preparing woolen cloth (shrink and thicken) was evidently situated further to the west and south, then by the edge of the city.<ref>Lancel, ''Carthage'' (Paris 1992; Oxford 1997) at 138–140. These findings mostly relate to the 3rd century BC.</ref> Carthage also produced objects of rare refinement. During the 4th and 3rd centuries, the [[sculptures]] of the [[sarcophagus|sarcophagi]] became works of art. "Bronze [[engraving]] and stone-carving reached their zenith."<ref>Picard, ''The Life and Death of Carthage'' (Paris 1970; New York 1968) at 162–165 (carvings described), 176–178 (quote).</ref>

The elevation of the land at the promontory on the seashore to the north-east (now called [[Sidi Bou Saïd]]), was twice as high above sea level as that at the Byrsa (100 m and 50 m). In between runs a ridge, several times reaching 50 m; it continues northwestward along the seashore, and forms the edge of a plateau-like area between the Byrsa and the sea.<ref>Lancel, ''Carthage'' (1992; 1997) at 138 and 145 (city maps).</ref> Newer urban developments lay here in these northern districts.<ref>This was especially so, later in the Roman era. E.g., Soren, Khader, Slim, ''Carthage'' (1990) at 187–210.</ref>

[[File:Maison punique byrsa.jpg|thumb|right|Punic ruins in Byrsa]]
[[File:Archaeological Site of Carthage-130237.jpg|thumb|Archaeological Site of Carthage]]

Due to the Roman's leveling of the city, the original Punic urban landscape of Carthage was largely lost. Since 1982, French archaeologist [[Serge Lancel]] excavated a residential area of the Punic Carthage on top of [[Byrsa]] hill near the Forum of the Roman Carthage. The neighborhood can be dated back to early second century BC, and with its houses, shops, and private spaces, is significant for what it reveals about daily life of the Punic Carthage.<ref>Serge Lancel and Jean-Paul Morel, "Byrsa. Punic vestiges"; ''To save Carthage. Exploration and conservation of the city Punic, Roman and Byzantine'', Unesco / INAA, 1992, pp. 43–59</ref>

The remains have been preserved under embankments, the substructures of the later Roman forum, whose foundation piles dot the district. The housing blocks are separated by a grid of straight streets about {{convert|6|m|abbr=on|0}} wide, with a roadway consisting of clay; ''[[in situ]]'' stairs compensate for the slope of the hill. Construction of this type presupposes organization and political will, and has inspired the name of the neighborhood, "[[Hannibal]] district", referring to the legendary Punic general or [[shophet|sufet]] (consul) at the beginning of the second century BC. The habitat is typical, even stereotypical. The street was often used as a storefront/shopfront; cisterns were installed in basements to collect water for domestic use, and a long corridor on the right side of each residence led to a courtyard containing a [[sump]], around which various other elements may be found. In some places, the ground is covered with [[mosaic]]s called punica pavement, sometimes using a characteristic red mortar.

===Society and local economy===
[[File:Archaeological Site of Carthage-130238.jpg|thumb|Archaeological Site of Carthage]]
[[File:Archaeological Site of Carthage-130239.jpg|thumb|View of two columns at Carthage]]
Punic culture and agricultural sciences, after arriving at Carthage from the eastern Mediterranean, gradually adapted to the local conditions. The merchant harbor at Carthage was developed after settlement of the nearby Punic town of [[Utica, Tunisia|Utica]], and eventually the surrounding African countryside was brought into the orbit of the Punic urban centers, first commercially, then politically. Direct management over cultivation of neighbouring lands by Punic owners followed.<ref>Stéphanie Gsell, ''Histoire ancienne de l'Afrique du Nord'', volume four (Paris 1920).</ref> A 28-volume work on agriculture written in Punic by [[Mago (agricultural writer)|Mago]], a retired army general ({{circa|300}}), was translated into Latin and later into Greek. The original and both translations have been lost; however, some of Mago's text has survived in other Latin works.<ref>Serge Lancel, ''Carthage. A History'' (Paris: Arthème Fayard 1992; Oxford: Blackwell 1995) at 273–274 (Mago quoted by Columella), 278–279 (Mago and [[Cato the Elder|Cato]]'s book), 358 (translations).</ref> Olive trees (e.g., [[grafting]]), fruit trees (pomegranate, almond, fig, date palm), [[viniculture]], bees, cattle, sheep, poultry, implements, and [[farm management]] were among the ancient topics which Mago discussed. As well, Mago addresses the wine-maker's art (here a type of [[sherry]]).<ref>[[Gilbert Charles-Picard|Gilbert]] and [[Colette Picard]], ''La vie quotidienne à Carthage au temps d'Hannibal'' (Paris: Librairie Hachette 1958), translated as ''Daily Life in Carthage'' (London: George Allen & Unwin 1961; reprint Macmillan, New York 1968) at 83–93: 88 (Mago as retired general), 89–91 (fruit trees), 90 (grafting), 89–90 (vineyards), 91–93 (livestock and bees), 148–149 (wine making). Elephants also, of course, were captured and reared for war (at 92).</ref><ref>Sabatino Moscati, ''Il mondo dei Fenici'' (1966), translated as ''The World of the Phoenicians'' (London: Cardinal 1973) at 219–223. Hamilcar is named as another Carthaginian writing on agriculture (at 219).</ref><ref>Serge Lancel, ''Carthage'' (Paris: Arthème Fayard 1992; Oxford: Blackwell 1995), discussion of wine making and its 'marketing' at 273–276. Lancel says (at 274) that about wine making, Mago was silent. Punic agriculture and rural life are addressed at 269–302.</ref>

In Punic farming society, according to Mago, the small estate owners were the chief producers. They were, two modern historians write, not absent landlords. Rather, the likely reader of Mago was "the master of a relatively modest estate, from which, by great personal exertion, he extracted the maximum yield." Mago counselled the rural landowner, for the sake of their own 'utilitarian' interests, to treat carefully and well their managers and farm workers, or their overseers and slaves.<ref>G. and C. Charles-Picard, ''La vie quotidienne à Carthage au temps d'Hannibal'' (Paris: Librairie Hachette 1958) translated as ''Daily Life in Carthage'' (London: George Allen and Unwin 1961; reprint Macmillan 1968) at 83–93: 86 (quote); 86–87, 88, 93 (management); 88 (overseers).</ref> Yet elsewhere these writers suggest that rural land ownership provided also a new power base among the city's nobility, for those resident in their country villas.<ref>G. C. and C. Picard, ''Vie et mort de Carthage'' (Paris: Librairie Hachette 1970) translated (and first published) as ''The Life and Death of Carthage'' (New York: Taplinger 1968) at 86 and 129.</ref><ref>Charles-Picard, ''Daily Life in Carthage'' (1958; 1968) at 83–84: the development of a "landed nobility".</ref> By many, farming was viewed as an alternative endeavour to an urban business. Another modern historian opines that more often it was the urban merchant of Carthage who owned rural farming land to some profit, and also to retire there during the heat of summer.<ref>B. H. Warmington, in his ''Carthage'' (London: Robert Hale 1960; reprint Penguin 1964) at 155.</ref> It may seem that Mago anticipated such an opinion, and instead issued this contrary advice (as quoted by the Roman writer Columella):

<blockquote>The man who acquires an estate must sell his house, lest he prefer to live in the town rather than in the country. Anyone who prefers to live in a town has no need of an estate in the country."<ref>[[Mago (agricultural writer)|Mago]], quoted by [[Columella]] at I, i, 18; in Charles-Picard, ''Daily Life in Carthage'' (1958; 1968) at 87, 101, n37.</ref> "One who has bought land should sell his town house, so that he will have no desire to worship the household gods of the city rather than those of the country; the man who takes greater delight in his city residence will have no need of a country estate.<ref>Mago, quoted by Columella at I, i, 18; in Moscati, ''The World of the Phoenicians'' (1966; 1973) at 220, 230, n5.</ref></blockquote>

The issues involved in rural land management also reveal underlying features of Punic society, its structure and [[Social stratification|stratification]]. The hired workers might be considered 'rural proletariat', drawn from the local Berbers. Whether there remained Berber landowners next to Punic-run farms is unclear. Some Berbers became sharecroppers. Slaves acquired for farm work were often prisoners of war. In lands outside Punic political control, independent Berbers cultivated grain and raised horses on their lands. Yet within the Punic domain that surrounded the city-state of Carthage, there were ethnic divisions in addition to the usual quasi [[feudal]] distinctions between lord and peasant, or master and serf. This inherent instability in the countryside drew the unwanted attention of potential invaders.<ref>Gilbert and Colette Charles-Picard, ''Daily Life in Carthage'' (1958; 1968) at 83–85 (invaders), 86–88 (rural proletariat).</ref> Yet for long periods Carthage was able to manage these social difficulties.<ref>E.g., Gilbert Charles Picard and Colette Picard, ''The Life and Death of Carthage'' (Paris 1970; New York 1968) at 168–171, 172–173 (invasion of Agathocles in 310 BC). The ''mercenary revolt'' (240–237) following the First Punic War was also largely and actively, though unsuccessfully, supported by rural Berbers. Picard (1970; 1968) at 203–209.</ref>

The many [[amphora]]e with Punic markings subsequently found about ancient Mediterranean coastal settlements testify to Carthaginian trade in locally made olive oil and wine.<ref>[[Plato]] (c. 427 – c. 347) in his ''[[Laws (dialogue)|Laws]]'' at 674, a-b, mentions regulations at Carthage restricting the consumption of wine in specified circumstances. Cf., Lancel, ''Carthage'' (1997) at 276.</ref> Carthage's agricultural production was held in high regard by the ancients, and rivaled that of Rome{{snd}}they were once competitors, e.g., over their olive harvests. Under Roman rule, however, grain production (wheat and barley) for export increased dramatically in 'Africa'; yet these later fell with the rise in [[History of Roman Egypt|Roman Egypt]]'s grain exports. Thereafter olive groves and vineyards were re-established around Carthage. Visitors to the several growing regions that surrounded the city wrote admiringly of the lush green gardens, orchards, fields, [[irrigation]] channels, hedgerows (as boundaries), as well as the many prosperous farming towns located across the rural landscape.<ref>Warmington, ''Carthage'' (London: Robert Hale 1960, 2d ed. 1969) at 136–137.</ref><ref>Serge Lancel, ''Carthage'' (Paris: Arthème Fayard 1992) translated by Antonia Nevill (Oxford: Blackwell 1997) at 269–279: 274–277 (produce), 275–276 (amphora), 269–270 & 405 (Rome), 269–270 (yields), 270 & 277 (lands), 271–272 (towns).</ref>

Accordingly, the Greek author and compiler [[Diodorus Siculus]] (fl. 1st century BC), who enjoyed access to ancient writings later lost, and on which he based most of his writings, described agricultural land near the city of Carthage c. 310 BC:

<blockquote>It was divided into market gardens and orchards of all sorts of fruit trees, with many streams of water flowing in channels irrigating every part. There were country homes everywhere, lavishly built and covered with stucco. ... Part of the land was planted with vines, part with olives and other productive trees. Beyond these, cattle and sheep were pastured on the plains, and there were meadows with grazing horses.<ref>[[Diodorus Siculus]], ''Bibleoteca'', at XX, 8, 1–4, transl. as ''Library of History'' (Harvard University 1962), vol.10 [Loeb Classics, no.390); per Soren, Khader, Slim, ''Carthage'' (1990) at 88.</ref><ref>Lancel, ''Carthage'' (Paris 1992; Oxford 1997) at 277.</ref></blockquote>