Editing Carolingian dynasty (section)

==History==
=== Origins ===

==== Pippin I & Arnulf of Metz (613–645) ====
The Carolingian line first began with two important rival Frankish families, the [[Pippinids]] and [[Arnulfings]], whose destinies became intermingled in the early 7th century. Both men came from noble backgrounds on the western borders of the [[Austrasia]] territory between the [[Meuse]] and [[Moselle]] rivers, north of [[Liège]].<ref name="Riché-1993c">{{Cite book|last=Riché|first=Pierre|title=The Carolingians: A Family Who Forged Europe|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|year=1993|editor-last=Peters|editor-first=Edward|series=Middle Ages Series|location=Philadelphia|pages=14, 17–18, 20–23, 25, 30–31, 33, 35, 42|translator-last=Allen|translator-first=Michael Idomir}}</ref><ref name="Fouracre-2000b">{{Cite book|last=Fouracre|first=Paul|title=The Age of Charles Martel|publisher=Pearson Education Limited|year=2000|location=Harlow|pages=28, 34–35, 37–40, 48, 60, 70, 106, 108–109}}</ref>

The first two figures, [[Pepin of Landen|Pippin I of Landen]] and [[Arnulf of Metz]], from whom historians have taken the family names,<ref>{{Cite book|last=McKitterick|first=Rosamond|title=Charlemagne: The Formation of a European Identity|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2008|location=Cambridge|pages=57n}}</ref> both first appeared in the fourth book of the ''[[Chronicle of Fredegar|Continuations of Fredegar]]'' as advisers to [[Chlothar II|Chlotar II of Neustria]], who 'incited' revolt against King [[Theuderic II]] and [[Brunhilda of Austrasia|Brunhild of Austrasia]] in 613.<ref name="Nelson-1960c">{{Cite book|title=The Fourth Book of the Chronicle of Fredegar with its continuations|publisher=Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd|year=1960|location=London|pages=32, 43, 50–52, 73–75, 87|translator-last=Wallace-Hadrill|translator-first=J. M.}}</ref> Through shared interests, Pippin and Arnulf allied their families through the marriage of Pippin's daughter [[Begga]] and Arnulf's son [[Ansegisel]].<ref name="Riché-1993c" />

As repayment for their help during the Austrasian conquest, Chlotar rewarded both men with important positions of power in Austrasia. However, Arnulf was the first to gain. He was bestowed the bishopric of Metz in 614, entrusting him with the management of the Austrasian capital and the education of Chlotar's young son, the future [[Dagobert I]].<ref name="Gerberding-1987">{{Cite book|last=Gerberding|first=Richard A.|title=The Rise of the Carolingians and the Liber Historiae Francorum|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1987|location=Oxford|pages=7, 61, 65, 118, 145}}</ref> This is a position he would hold until his retirement in 629 after Chlotar's death, when he left for a small ecclesiastical community near Habendum; he was later buried at the monastery of [[Remiremont Abbey|Remiremont]] after his death {{Circa|645}}.<ref name="Riché-1993c" />

==== Pippin I (624–640) ====
Pippin was not immediately rewarded, but eventually was given the position of ''maior palatti'' or '[[Mayor of the Palace|mayor of the palace]]' of Austrasia in 624. This reward secured Pippin a position of prime importance with the Merovingian royal court. The mayor of the palace would act as the mediator between the King and the magnates of the region; as Paul Fouracre summarises, they were 'regarded as the most important non-royal person in the kingdom.'<ref name="Fouracre-2000b" /> The reason Pippin was not rewarded sooner is not certain, but two mayors, Rado (613 – {{Circa|617}}) and Chucus ({{Circa|617|624}}), are believed to have preceded him and were potentially political rivals connected to the fellow Austrasian 'Gundoinings' noble family.<ref name="Gerberding-1987" /><ref name="Fouracre-2000b" /> Once elected, Pippin served faithfully under Chlotar until the latter's death in 629, and solidified the Pippinids' position of power within Austrasia by supporting Chlotar's son Dagobert, who became King of Austrasia in 623.<ref name="Fouracre-2000b" /> Pippin, with support from Arnulf and other Austrasian magnates, even used the opportunity to support the killing of an important political rival [[Chrodoald]], an [[Agilolfings|Agilolfing]] lord.<ref name="Nelson-1960c" />

Following King Dagobert I's ascent to the throne in {{Circa|629}}, he returned the Frankish capital back to Paris in [[Neustria]], from whence it had been removed by Chlotar in 613. As a result, Pippin lost his position as mayor and the support of the Austrasian magnates, who were seemingly irritated by his inability to persuade the King to return the political centre to Austrasia.<ref name="Nelson-1960c" /> Instead, Dagobert turned to the Pippinids' political rival family, the [[Gundoinings]], whose connections in [[Adalgesil]], [[Cunibert|Cunibert, archbishop of Cologne]], Otto and [[Radulf, King of Thuringia|Radulf]] (who would later revolt in 642)<ref name="Nelson-1960c" /> once again removed the Pippinid and Arnulfing influence in the Austrasia assemblies.<ref name="Riché-1993c" />

Pippin did not reappear in the historical record until Dagobert's death in 638,<ref name="Gerberding-1987" /> when he had seemingly been reinstated as mayor of Austrasia and began to support the new young King [[Sigebert III]]. According to the ''Continuations'', Pippin made arrangements with his rival, Archbishop [[Cunibert]], to get Austrasian support for the 10-year-old King Sigibert III, who ruled Austrasia whilst his brother [[Clovis II]] ruled over Neustria and [[Burgundy]]. Soon after securing his position once again, he unexpectedly died in 640.<ref name="Nelson-1960c" />

==== Grimoald (640–656) ====
Following Pippin's sudden death, the Pippinid family worked swiftly to secure their position. Pippin's daughter [[Gertrude of Nivelles|Gertrude]] and wife [[Itta of Metz|Itta]] founded and entered the [[Nivelles Abbey]], and his only son [[Grimoald the Elder|Grimoald]] worked to secure his father's position of ''maior palatii.'' The position was not hereditary and therefore passed to another Austrasian noble, Otto, the tutor of Sigebert III.<ref name="Riché-1993c" /> According to the ''Continuations'', Grimoald began to work with his father's accomplice Cunibert to remove Otto from office. He finally succeeded in {{Circa|641}}, when [[Leuthari II|Leuthari II, Duke of Alamannia]] killed Otto under Grimoald's and, we must assume, Cunibert's orders.<ref name="Nelson-1960c" /> Grimoald then became mayor of Austrasia. His power at this time was extensive, with properties in [[Utrecht]], [[Nijmegen]], [[Tongeren]] and [[Maastricht]]; he was even called 'ruler of the realm' by [[Desiderius of Cahors]] in 643.<ref name="Riché-1993c" />

This could not have been done if Grimoald had not secured Sigibert III's support. The Pippinids already gained royal patronage from Pippin I's support, but this was further bolstered by Grimoald's role in Duke Radulf of Thuringia's rebellion. Just prior to Otto's assassination, in {{circa|640}} Radulf revolted against the Merovingians and made himself King of Thuringia. Sigibert, with an Austrasian army including Grimoald and Duke [[Adalgisel]], went on campaign and after a brief victory against [[Fara (son of Chrodoald)|Fara]], son of the assassinated [[Agilolfings|Agilofing]] lord Chrodoald, the Austrasians met Radulf on the [[Unstrut|River Unstrut]] where he had set up a stronghold. What followed was a disorganized battle spread over several days, in which the Austrasian lords disagreed on tactics. Grimoald and Adalgesil strengthened their position by defending Sigibert's interests, but could not establish a unanimous agreement. During their final assault, the 'men of [[Mainz]]' betrayed the Austrasians and joined with Radulf. This penultimate battle killed many important Austrasian lords, including Duke [[Bobo of Auvergne|Bobo]] and Count [[Innowales]], and resulted in Sigibert's defeat. The ''Continuations'' offers a famous description of Sigibert being 'seized with the wildest grief and sat there on his horse weeping unrestrainedly for those he had lost' as Radulf returned to his camp victorious.<ref name="Nelson-1960c" />

Upon Sigibert's return from Unstruct, Grimoald, now mayor, began to build power for the Pippinid clan. He utilized the existing links between the family and ecclesiastical community to gain control over local holy men and women who, in turn, supported Pippinid assertions of power. Grimoald established links with Aquitanian and Columbianan missionaries [[Amandus]] and [[Remaclus]], both of whom came to be influential bishops within the Merovingian court. Remaclus, in particular, was important as after becoming bishop of Maastricht, he established two monasteries: [[Stavelot Abbey|Stavelot Abbey and Malmedy]]. Under Grimoald's direction, the Arnulfings were also further established with [[Chlodulf of Metz]], son of St. Arnulf, taking the bishopric of Metz in 656.<ref name="Riché-1993c" />

==== Grimoald and Childebert (656–657) ====
The final moment of Grimoald's life is an area that is disputed in both date and event, titled: 'Grimoald's coup'.<ref name="Fouracre-2000b" /> It involves Grimoald and his son [[Childebert the Adopted]] taking the Austrasian throne from the true Merovingian King [[Dagobert II]], son of the late Sigibert who died young at 26 years old. Historians like [[Pierre Riché]] are certain that Sigibert died in 656, having adopted Childebert due to his lack of an adult male heir. Following this, young Dagobert II was then exiled and tonsured by Grimoald and [[Dido of Poitiers]], who then installed Childebert as King of Austrasia. Clovis II in Neustria, uncle to Dagobert, then reacted to the revolt and lured Grimoald and Childebert into Neustria, where they were executed.<ref name="Riché-1993c" />

This story is only confirmed by the pro-Neustrian source,<ref name="Fouracre-2005">{{Cite book|last=Fouracre|first=Paul|title=Charlemagne: Empire & Society|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=2005|editor-last=Story|editor-first=Joanna|location=Manchester|pages=6, 10–11|chapter=The Long Shadow of the Merovingians}}</ref> the ''[[Liber Historiae Francorum|Liber Historia Francorum]]'' (''LHF'') and selected charter evidence. Other contemporary sources like the ''Continuations'' fail to mention the event and Carolingian sources like [[Annales Mettenses priores|''Annales Mettenses Priores'']] (''AMP'') ignore the event and even deny Grimoald's existence.<ref name="Gerberding-1987" /> As such, historian [[Richard Gerberding]] has suggested a different chronology and reading of the ''LHF'', which places Sigibert's death on 1 February 651. According to a Gerberding narrative, Grimoald and Dido organised Dagobert's exile around 16 January 651 to Ireland at Nivelles and then, when Sigibert died a month later, they acted out the plan and tonsured Dagobert, replacing him with Childebert, who ruled until 657. Clovis II then immediately acted and invaded Austrasia, executing Grimoald and his son.<ref name="Gerberding-1987" />

Then, either in 657 or 662, the Neustrians (either Clovis II who died in 657 or his son [[Chlothar III]]) installed infant King [[Childeric II]] to the throne of Austrasia, marrying him to [[Bilichild (wife of Childeric II)|Bilichild]], the daughter of Sigibert's widow [[Chimnechild of Burgundy]].<ref name="Fouracre-2000b" /> Grimoald and Childebert's deaths brought an end to the direct Pippinid line of the family, leaving the Arnulfing descendants from Begga and Ansegisel to continue the faction.<ref name="Collins-2010a">{{Cite book|last=Collins|first=Roger|title=Early Medieval Europe 300–1000|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2010|edition=3rd|series=Palgrave History of Europe|location=London|pages=264, 266}}</ref>

==== Pippin II (676–714) ====
Very little is known about Pippin's early life, but a controversial story from ''AMP'' suggests that Pippin reclaimed power in Austrasia by killing a legendary '[[Gundoin]]' as revenge for the assassination of his father Ansegisel. This story is regarded as slightly fantastical by [[Paul Fouracre]], who argues the ''AMP,'' a pro-Carolingian source potentially written by Giselle (Charlemagne's sister) in 805 at Chelles, is that Pippin's role primes him perfectly for his future and demonstrates his family to be 'natural leaders of Austrasia.'<ref name="Fouracre-2005" /> However, Fouracre does also acknowledge his existence in charter evidence and confirms that he was a political link to rival mayor [[Wulfoald]]. These rivalries would make Pippin natural enemies with Gundoin, making the murder plausible as part of Pippin's rise to power.<ref name="Fouracre-2000b" />

===== Rise to power =====
The Arnulfing clan reappear in the contemporary historical record in {{circa|676}}, when the ''LHF'' mentions '[[Pepin of Herstal|Pippin]] and Martin' rising up against a tyrannical [[Ebroin]], mayor of Austrasia.<ref name="Riché-1993c" /><ref name="Fouracre-2000b" /> Pippin II, now head of the faction, and Martin, who was either Pippin's brother or relative, rose up against Ebroin and gathered an army (potentially with the aid of Dagobert II who had been brought back to Austrasia by mayor Wulfoald).<ref name="Fouracre-2000b" /> According to the ''LHF'', the Arnulfing army met Ebroin, who had gained the support of [[Theuderic III|King Theuderic III]], at [[Bois-du-Fays]], and they were easily defeated. Martin fled to [[Laon]], from where he was lured and murdered by Ebroin at [[Asfeld]]. Pippin fled to Austrasia and soon received [[Ermenfred]], an officer of a royal fisc who had assassinated Ebroin.<ref name="Riché-1993c" /><ref name="Paul-1996">{{Cite book|last1=Paul|first1=Fouracre|title=Late Merovingian France: History and Hagiography 640–720|last2=Gerberding|first2=Richard|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=1996|series=Manchester Medieval Sources Series|location=Manchester|pages=91–94, 358–359, 365}}</ref>

The Neustrians, with Ebroin dead, installed [[Waratto]] as mayor, and he looked for peace with the Austrasians. Despite an exchange of hostages, Warrato's son [[Gistemar]] attacked Pippin at [[Namur]] and displaced his father.<ref name="Fouracre-2000b" /> He died shortly thereafter and Warrato resumed his position, wherein peace was reached but tense relations remained until Warrato's death in 686. He left behind his wife [[Ansfled]] and his son [[Berchar]], whom the Neustrians installed as mayor. Against his father's policy, Berchar did not maintain peace and incited Pippin into violence.<ref name="Paul-1996" />

In 687, Pippin rallied an Austrasian army and led an assault on Neustria, facing Theuderic III and the Neustrian mayor, now Berchar, in combat. They met at the [[Battle of Tertry]], where the ''AMP'' records that Pippin, after offering peace which was rejected by Theuderic at Berchar's behest, crossed the river [[Omignon]] at the break of dawn and attacked the Neustrians, who believed the battle won when they saw Pippin's camp abandoned. This surprise attack was successful and the Neustrians fled.<ref name="Paul-1996" /> Following this victory, Berchar was either killed, as the ''AMP'' argues, by his own people, but the ''LHF'' suggests that it is more likely that he was murdered by his mother-in-law, Ansfled.<ref name="Paul-1996" /> This moment was decisive in Arnulfing history as it was the first time that any of the faction had national control. Paul Fouracre even argues it is for this that the ''AMP'' starts with Pippin II, as a false dawn upon which Charles Martel would rebuild.<ref name="Fouracre-2005" /> However, historians have discredited the importance of this victory. [[Marios Costambey]]s, [[Matthew Innes]] and [[Simon MacLean]] all show that the Tertry victory did not establish solid authority over Neustria immediately, evidenced by the fact that Pippin immediately installed 'Norbert, one of his followers' (as written in the ''LHF'') and then his son Grimoald in 696 to ensure continued influence.<ref name="Costambeys-2011">{{Cite book|last1=Costambeys|first1=Marios|title=The Carolingian World|last2=Innes|first2=Matthew|last3=MacLean|first3=Simon|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|series=Cambridge Medieval Textbooks|location=Cambridge|pages=40, 42, 50–51}}</ref><ref name="Paul-1996" />

===== Consolidation of power =====
Pippin II then became overall mayor of the royal palace under Theuderic II, becoming mayor of Austrasia, Neustria and Burgundy.<ref name="Riché-1993c" /> His son [[Drogo of Champagne|Drogo]], from his wife [[Plectrude]], was also imbued with power when he married Berchar's widow Adaltrude (potentially maneuvered by Ansfled) and was made Duke of Champagne.<ref name="Wood-1994b">{{Cite book|last=Wood|first=Ian|title=The Merovingian Kingdoms 450–751|url=https://archive.org/details/merovingiankingd751wood|url-access=limited|publisher=Longman Publishing|year=1994|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/merovingiankingd751wood/page/n265 256], 260, 267, 285}}</ref> Pippin was politically dominating and had the power to elect the next two Merovingian kings after Theuderic II died in 691; he installed [[Clovis IV|King Clovis IV]] (691-695), [[Childebert III]] (695-711) and [[Dagobert III]] (711-715).<ref name="Riché-1993c" /> Pippin moved to secure further power by consolidating his position in Neustria, installing several bishops like [[Gripho]], Bishop of Rouen and [[Bainus]] at the [[Abbey of Saint Wandrille]] in 701, which was later owned along with [[Fleury Abbey]] (founded by Pippin in 703).<ref name="Fouracre-2000b" /> Imbued with internal strength, Pippin also began to look outwards from the Frankish Empire to subdue the people, that the ''AMP'' records, who once were 'subjected to the Franks ... [such as] the Saxons, Frisians, Alemans, Bavarians, Aquitainians, Gascons and Britons.'<ref name="Paul-1996" /> Pippin defeated the pagan chieftain [[Redbad, King of the Frisians|Radbod]] in Frisia, an area that had been slowly encroached upon by Austrasian nobles and Anglo-Saxon missionaries like [[Willibrord]], whose links would later make him a connection between the Arnulfings and the papacy.<ref name="Riché-1993c" /> Following [[Gottfried|Gotfrid, Duke of Alemannia]] in 709, Pippin also moved against the Alemans and subjugated them again to royal control.

===== Later years =====
As Pippin approached his death in late 714, he was faced with a succession crisis. Drogo, Pippin's oldest son, died in 707 and his second son Grimoald, according to the ''LHF'', was killed whilst praying to [[Lambert of Maastricht|Saint Lambert]] in [[Liège]] in 714 by Rantgar, suspected by Paul Fouracre to be a pagan.<ref name="Wood-1994b" /><ref name="Paul-1996" /><ref name="Fouracre-2000b" /> Pippin, before his death, made his six-year-old grandson [[Theudoald]] (Grimoald's son) his successor in Neustria, a choice that is believed to have been promoted by his wife Plectrude,<ref name="Riché-1993c" />   which was a political choice from within the direct family line, as Pippin had two adult illegitimate children, [[Charles Martel]] and [[Childebrand I]], from a second wife or concubine named [[Alpaida]].<ref name="Gerberding-1987" /> They were ousted so Theudoald (with Plectrude's regency) could take the throne, a choice that would result in disaster.

===== Death =====
When Pippin II died in December 714, the Arnulfings' dominance over Francia disintegrated. The ''LHF'' tells us that 'Plectrude along with her grandchildren and the king directed all the affairs of state under a separate government', a system which created tensions with the Neustrians.<ref name="Paul-1996" /> Theudoald ruled uncontested for around six months, until June 715, when the Neustrians revolted. Theudoald and the Arnulfings' supporters met at the [[Battle of Compiègne]] on 26 September 715,<ref name="Fouracre-2000b" /> and after a decisive victory, the Neustrians installed a new mayor [[Ragenfrid]] and, following Dagobert's death, their own Merovingian king [[Chilperic II]].<ref name="Paul-1996" /> Charter evidence suggests that Chilperic was the son of the former King Childeric II, but this would make Daniel in his 40s, which is quite old to take the throne.<ref name="Fouracre-2000b" />

==== Charles Martel (714–741) ====

===== Rise to power =====
Following their victory, the Neustrians joined with [[Redbad, King of the Frisians|Radbod, King of the Frisians]] and invaded Austrasia, aiming towards the Meuse river to take the heartland of the faction's support.<ref name="Nelson-1960c" /> It is at this moment that Charles Martel is first mentioned in historical records, which note him surviving imprisonment by his step-mother, Plectrude. Charles managed to escape and mustered an Austrasian army to face the encroaching Radbod and the Neustrians. In 716, Charles finally met the Frisians as they approached and, although the ''AMP'' attempts equalize the losses, it is confirmed from the descriptions in the ''LHF'' and the ''Continuations'' that Charles was defeated with heavy losses.<ref name="Nelson-1960c" /><ref name="Paul-1996" /> Chilperic, Raganfred and, according to the ''Continuations'', Radbod, then travelled from Neustria through the forest of the [[Ardennes]] and raided around the river [[Rhine]] and [[Cologne]], taking treasure from Plectrude and her supporters. As they returned, Charles ambushed the returning party at the [[Battle of Amblève]] and was victorious, inflicting heavy losses on the Neustrian invaders.

In 717, Charles mustered his army again and marched on Neustria, taking the city of Verdun during his conquest.<ref name="Riché-1993c" /> He met Chilperic and Raganfred again at the [[Battle of Vincy|Battle of Vinchy]] on 21 March 717 and was once again victorious, forcing them back to [[Paris]]. He then swiftly returned to Austrasia and besieged Cologne, defeating Plectrude and reclaiming his father's wealth and treasure. Charles bolstered his position by installing the Merovingian king [[Chlothar IV]] in Austrasia as an opposing Merovingian to Chilperic II.<ref name="Paul-1996" /> Despite not having a Merovingian king for around 40 years in Austrasia, Charles' position was weak at this time and he required the support of the established Merovingians to gather military support.<ref name="Fouracre-1995b">{{Cite book|last=Fouracre|first=Paul|title=The New Cambridge Medieval History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1995|location=Cambridge|pages=88|chapter=Frankish Gaul of 814}}</ref> Despite his weaknesses, Charles' recent success had made him a greater political entity; as such, Chilperic and Raganfred could not win a decisive victory against him. So, in 718 they too sent embassies and won the support of [[Odo the Great|Duke Eudo of Aquitaine]] who, at their request, mustered 'a Gascon army' to face Charles. In response, Charles brought an army to the eastern Neustrian borders and faced Duke Eudo in battle at Soissons.<ref name="Fouracre-2000b" /> Duke Eudo, realising he was outmatched, retreated to Paris, where he took Chilperic and the royal treasury and left for [[Aquitaine]]. Charles pursued them, according to the ''Continuations'', as far as Orleans, but Eudo and the Neustrians managed to escape.<ref name="Nelson-1960c" /> In 718, King Chlothar IV died and was not replaced; instead, Charles became the primary authority in Francia. He established a peace treaty with Duke Eudo that ensured Chilperic II was returned to Francia; thereafter, until Chilperic's death in 720 at [[Noyon]], the kingship was restored with Carolingian control and Charles became the ''maior palatii'' in both Neustria and Austrasia.<ref name="Fouracre-1995b" /> Following Chilperic II's death, the Merovingian king [[Theuderic IV]], son of Dagobert III, was taken from [[Chelles Abbey]] and appointed by the Neustrians and Charles as the Frankish king.

===== Consolidation of power =====
With his ascension to the throne, several significant moments in Frankish history occurred. Firstly, the ''LHF'' ended, likely composed several years later in 727 and ended one of the several perspectives we have on Charles' ascension.<ref name="Gerberding-1987" /> Secondly, and more importantly, the Arnulfing predominance in the faction ended and the Carolingian (translating to 'sons of Charles') officially began.<ref name="Costambeys-2011"/>

Once the immediate dangers were dealt with, Charles then began to consolidate his position as sole mayor of the Frankish kingdom. The civil unrest between 714 and 721 had destroyed the continental political cohesion, and peripheral kingdoms like Aquitaine, [[Alamannia|Alemannia]], Burgundy and [[Bavaria]] had slipped from the Carolingian's grasp. Even though the faction had, by Charles Martel's time, established strong political control over Francia, loyalty to the Merovingian power within these border regions remained.<ref name="Costambeys-2011"/>

====== Ending the Civil War ======
Charles first set out to reinstate Carolingian dominance internally within Francia: the ''Continuations'' lists Charles' continuous maneuvers which solidified the campaigns generating the Carolingian military foundation. In 718, the ''AMP'' records that Charles fought against the Saxons, pushing them as far as the river [[Weser]]<ref name="Paul-1996" /> and following up with subsequent campaigns in 720 and 724 which secured the northern borders of Austrasia and Neustria.<ref name="Fouracre-1995b" /> He subdued his former enemy Raganfred at [[Angers]] in 724 and secured his patronage, removing the remaining political resistance that had continued to thrive in western Neustria.<ref name="Collins-2010a" />

====== East of the Rhine ======
In 725, Charles set out against the peripheral kingdoms, starting with Alemannia. The region had almost gained independence during the reign of Pippin II and under the leadership of [[Lantfrid]], Duke of Alemannia, as (710–730) they acted without Frankish authority, issuing law codes like the ''[[Lex Alamannorum]]'' without Carolingian consultation. As recorded in the Alemannia source,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Goosman|first=F.C.W.|title=Memorable crises: Carolingian historiography and the making of Pippin's reign, 750–900|year=2013|location=Amsterdam|pages=223}}</ref> the ''[[Breviary of Erchanbert]]'', the Alemanni 'refused to obey the duces of the Franks because they were no longer able to serve the Merovingian kings. Therefore, each of them kept to himself.'<ref name="Wood-1994b" /> This statement was true for more than just Alemannia and, just like in those regions, Charles brutally forced them into submission. Charles was successful in his first campaign, but returned in 730, the same year that Duke Lantfrid died and was succeeded by his brother [[Theudebald, Duke of Alamannia]].<ref name="Fouracre-2000b" />

As successful as campaigning had been, Charles seemingly took inspiration from [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] [[missionary]] [[Saint Boniface]], who in 719 was sent by [[Pope Gregory II]] to convert Germany, in particular the areas of [[Thuringia]] and [[Hesse]], where he established the monasteries of [[Ohrdruf Priory|Ohrdruf]], [[Tauberbischofsheim]], [[Kitzingen]] and [[Ochsenfurt]]. Charles, realising the potential of establishing Carolingian-supportive episcopal centres, utilised [[Saint Pirmin]], an itinerant monk, to establish an ecclesiastical foundation on [[Reichenau Island]] in [[Lake Constance]]. He was expelled in 727 by Lantfrid and he retreated to [[Alsace]], where he established monasteries with the support of the [[Etichonids|Etichonid]] clan, who were Carolingian supporters. This relationship gave the Carolingians long-term benefit from Pirmin's future achievements, which brought abbeys in the eastern provinces into Carolingian favour.<ref name="Riché-1993c" />

In 725, Charles continued his conquest from Alemannia and invaded Bavaria. Like Alemannia, Bavaria had continued to gain independence under the rule of the Agilolfings clan who, in recent years, had increased links with [[Lombards|Lombardy]] and affirmed their own law codes, like the [[Lex Baiuvariorum]].<ref name="Wood-1994b" /> When Charles moved, the region was experiencing a power struggle between [[Grimoald of Bavaria]] and his nephew [[Hugbert of Bavaria|Hugbert]], but when Grimoald died in 725, Hugbert gained the position and Charles reaffirmed their support. The ''Continuations'' records that when Charles left Bavaria, he took hostages, one of which was [[Swanachild]], who later would become Charles' second wife.<ref name="Nelson-1960c" /> Paul Fouracre believes this marriage could have been intentionally forced, based upon the fact that Swanchild's heritage related her both to Alemannia and Bavaria. Not only would their marriage have allowed greater control over both regions, but it also would have cut the existing family ties that the Agilofings had to the Pippinid family branch. Plectrude's sister [[Regintrud]] was married to [[Theodo of Bavaria]], and this relation provided an opportunity for disenfranchised family members to defect.<ref name="Fouracre-2000b" />

====== Aquitaine, Burgundy and Provence ======
Following his conquest east of the Rhine, Charles had the opportunity to assert his dominance over Aquitaine and began committing military resources and performing raids in 731.<ref name="Fouracre-1995a">{{Cite book|last=Fouracre|first=Paul|title=The New Cambridge Medieval History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1995|location=Cambridge|pages=88, 90|chapter=Frankish Gaul of 814}}</ref> However, before he could make any major movements, Aquitaine was invaded by [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] warlord [[Abd al-Rahman I]]. Following Abd al-Rahman's ascension in Spain in 731, another local Berber lord [[Munuza]] revolted, set himself up at [[Cerdanya]] and forged defensive alliances with the Franks and Aquitainians through a marriage to Eudo's daughter. Abd ar-Rahman then besieged Cerdanya and forced Munuza into retreat into France, at which point he continued his advance into Aquitaine, moving as far as Tours before he was met by Charles Martel. Carolingian sources attest that Duke Eudo begged Charles for assistance, but [[Ian N. Wood]] claims these embassies have been invented by later pro-Carolingian annalists. Eudo was a main protagonist in the [[Battle of Toulouse (721)]], which famously stopped Muslim lord [[Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani]]'s advances in [[Narbonne]] and gained Eudo praise in the ''[[Liber Pontificalis]]''.<ref name="Wood-1994a">{{Cite book|last=Wood|first=Ian|title=The Merovingian Kingdoms 450–751|url=https://archive.org/details/merovingiankingd751wood|url-access=limited|publisher=Longman Publishing|year=1994|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/merovingiankingd751wood/page/n265 256], 260, 267, 275–276, 285}}</ref>

Charles met the Muslim force at the famous [[Battle of Poitiers (732)]] and came out victorious, killing Abd ar-Rahman. This moment cemented Charles Martel in historical records and gained him international praise. [[Bede]], writing at the same time in [[Jarrow]], [[England]], recorded the event in his ''[[Ecclesiastical History of the English People]]'', and his victory gained Charles Martel the admiration of seminal historian [[Edward Gibbon]] who considered him the Christian saviour of Europe.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bede|author-link=Bede|title=A History of the English Church and People|publisher=Penguin Books|year=1968|series=Penguin Classics|location=London|pages=330|translator-last=Sherley-Price|translator-first=Leo|translator-link=Leo Sherley-Price|translator-last2=Latham|translator-first2=R. E.|translator-link2=R. E. Latham}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Gibbon|first=Edward|title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|publisher=John Murray|year=1839|editor-last=Hilman|editor-first=H. H.|volume=X|location=London|pages=23–27}}</ref> Although his victory was considered famous, in reality his victory was far less impactful, and Charles would not gain much control in Aquitaine until Eudo's death in 735. The victory may have given the Carolingians relative local support that potentially allowed Charles to assert dominance over Eudo's son and successor [[Hunald of Aquitaine]], but records of continued hostilities in 736 only further cemented that relations were strained.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Collins|first=Roger|title=Charlemagne|publisher=MacMillan Press Ltd|year=1998|location=Basingstoke|pages=30}}</ref><ref name="Costambeys-2011"/>

With a stronger establishment in Aquitaine, Charles made moves to assert his dominance into Burgundy.<ref name="Collins-2010b">{{Cite book|last=Collins|first=Roger|title=Early Medieval Europe 300–1000|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2010|edition=3rd|series=Palgrave History of Europe|location=London|pages=264, 266, 269}}</ref> The region, at least in the Northern areas, had remained controlled and allied with Frankish interest. Influential nobility like [[Savaric of Auxerre]], who had maintained near-autonomy and led military forces against Burgundian towns like [[Orléans]], [[Nevers]] and [[Troyes]], even dying whilst besieging [[Lyon]], were the key to Charles' support. As such, Charles made multiple attempts to both gain the faction's support and remove their authority. When Savaric died during Charles' early reign, he agreed to support Savaric's nephew [[Eucherius of Orléans|Bishop Eucherius of Orléans]]' claim to the bishopric. However, once Charles had established a powerful basis by 737, he exiled Eucherius, with the help of a man called Chrodobert, to the monastery of [[St Trond]].<ref name="Wood-1994a" /> Charles took further military action in the same year to fully assert his authority, and installed his sons [[Pepin the Short|Pippin]] and Remigius as magnates. This was followed by the installation of political supporters from Bavaria and local supporters like [[Theuderic of Autun]] and [[Adalhard of Chalon]].<ref name="Riché-1993c"/>

This acquisition of land in southern France was supported by the increased social chaos that seemingly developed during the Civil War years. This was most apparent in [[Provence]], where local magnates, like [[Abbo of Provence]], were incredibly supportive of Charles' attempts to reinstate Frankish power.<ref name="Fouracre-1995c">{{Cite book|last=Fouracre|first=Paul|title=The New Cambridge Medieval History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1995|location=Cambridge|pages=88–90|chapter=Frankish Gaul of 814}}</ref> In 739, he used his power in Burgundy and Aquitaine to lead an attack with his brother [[Childebrand I]] against Arab invaders and Duke [[Maurontus]], who had been claiming independence and allying himself with Muslim emir Abd ar-Rahman.<ref name="Fouracre-2000a">{{Cite book|last=Fouracre|first=Paul|title=The Age of Charles Martel|publisher=Pearson Education Limited|year=2000|location=Harlow|pages=28, 34–35, 37–40, 48, 60, 70, 96–97, 106, 108–109}}</ref> It is likely due to [[Childebrand's]] sponsorship of the manuscript that his involvement is so extensively recorded in the ''Continuations''.<ref name="Nelson-1960a">{{Cite book|title=The Fourth Book of the Chronicle of Fredegar with its continuations|publisher=Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd|year=1960|location=London|pages=32, 43, 50–52, 73–75, 87, 96, 102–103|translator-last=Wallace-Hadrill|translator-first=J. M.}}</ref> According to the manuscript, Childebrand and Charles noticed the Arab army, with Maurontus' welcome, entering [[Avignon]] and quickly moved against the alliance. They besieged the city and claimed victory; the Franks then made the decision to invade [[Septimania]], taking [[Narbonne]] and flanking the Arab army. The Franks then fought off a support army sent from Spain under [[Omar-ibn Chaled]] at the [[Berre (Aude)|River Berre]]. From there the Franks then pursued the retreating Arabs and ravaged the cities of [[Nîmes]], [[Agde]] and [[Béziers]] before returning to Francia. Later that year, Charles and Childebrand returned to Provence, likely collecting more forces, and then forcing the rebellious Maurontus into 'impenetrable rocky fastnesses out to sea.'<ref name="Nelson-1960a" /> [[Paul the Deacon]] later records in his ''[[History of the Lombards|Historia Langobardorum]]'' Maurontus received help from the Lombards, and his Arab allies then fled.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Paul the Deacon|title=Historia Langobardorum|publisher=Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores|year=1829|editor-last=Pertz|editor-first=G.|volume=II|location=Hanover|pages=262–268}}</ref> At this time, Charles then assumed control of the region and, judging from Charter evidence, appointed Abbo of Provence as ''patricius'' (Patrician) in the region.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=Archibald R.|date=July 1976|title=The Dukes in the Regnum Francorum, A.D. 550–751|journal=Speculum|volume=51|issue=3|pages=401|doi=10.2307/2851704|jstor=2851704|s2cid=162248053}}</ref>

===== Ruling Francia =====
Charles also ruled the Frankish realm, although the majority of his policies were centred upon his conquests and his military ventures. In 19th century historiography, historians like [[Heinrich Brunner]] even centred their arguments around Charles' necessity for military resources, in particular the development of mounted warrior or cavalry that would peak in the [[High Middle Ages]]. However, in modern historiography, historians like Pierre Riche and Paul Fouracre have discredited his ideas as too simplistic and have aimed to depict more realistic fragments of development that may or not have been interdependent.<ref name="Fouracre-2000c">{{Cite book|last=Fouracre|first=Paul|title=The Age of Charles Martel|publisher=Pearson Education Limited|year=2000|location=Harlow|pages=28, 34–35, 37–40, 48, 60, 70, 96–97, 106, 108–109, 121, 137–154}}</ref> This was the period in which the Carolingians first began to establish themselves as fully independent from the Merovingian royalty.

====== Vassalage and Church ======
Charles Martel has become notorious in historiography for his role in the development of the concept of [[feudalism]]. The debates are rooted in the arguments of historians like [[François-Louis Ganshof]], who viewed Charles' reign as the birth of the 'feudal' relationship between power and property. This results from the increased use of ''[[Precarium|precaria]]'' or temporary land grants by the Carolingians, who allocated and spread their power to their subordinates. Ganshof's arguments connect these ties to a military-tenure relationship; however, this is never represented in primary material, and instead is only implied, and likely derived from, an understanding of 'feudalism' in the High Middle Ages. Recent historians like Paul Fouracre have criticised Ganshof's review for being too simplistic, and in reality, even though these systems of vassalage did exist between lord and populace, they were not as standardised as older historiography has suggested. For example, Fouracre has drawn particular attention to the incentives that drew lords and warriors into the Carolingian armies, arguing that the primary draw was 'booty' and treasure gained from conquest rather than 'feudal' obligation.<ref name="Fouracre-2000c" />

Although Charles' reign is no longer considered transitional in its feudal developments, it is seen as a transitional period in the spread of the existing system of vassals and ''precaria'' land rights. Due to Charles' continued military and missionary work, the political systems that existed in the heartlands, Austrasia and Neustria, officially began to spread to the periphery.<ref name="Fouracre-2000c" /> Those whom Charles appointed as new nobility in these regions, often with lifetime tenures,<ref name="Collins-2010c">{{Cite book|last=Collins|first=Roger|title=Early Medieval Europe 300–1000|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2010|edition=3rd|series=Palgrave History of Europe|location=London|pages=264, 266, 269, 271}}</ref> ensured that Carolingian loyalties and systems was maintained across the kingdoms. The Carolingians were also far more strict with their land rights and tenure than their Merovingian predecessors, carefully distributing their new land to new families temporarily, but maintaining their control. Merovingians kings weakened themselves by allocating too much of their royal domains to supporting factions; the Carolingians themselves seemingly became increasingly powerful due to their generosity. By giving away their land, the Merovingians allowed themselves to become figureheads and the 'do nothing kings' that Einhard prefaced in the ''Vita Karoli Magni''.<ref name="Riché-1993c"/><ref>{{Cite book|last=Einhard|title=Two Lives of Charlemagne: Einhard and Notker the Stammerer|publisher=Penguin Books|year=2008|isbn=978-0-140-45505-2|location=London|pages=18–19|translator-last=Ganz|translator-first=David}}</ref>

Due to his vast military conquests, Charles often reallocated existing land settlements, including Church property, to new tenants. Ecclesiastical property and monasteries in the late Merovingian and Carolingian period were political centres and often closely related to the royal court;<ref>{{Cite book|last=de Jong|first=Mayke|title=The New Cambridge Medieval History|url=https://archive.org/details/newcambridgemedi00allm|url-access=limited|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1995|editor-last=McKitterick|editor-first=Rosamond|location=Cambridge|pages=[https://archive.org/details/newcambridgemedi00allm/page/n643 622]|chapter=Carolingian monasticism: the power of prayer}}</ref> as such they often became involved in political matters, which often overlapped with Charles' reallocation of land. This 'secularisation' of Church property caused serious tension between the [[Carolingian church]] and state, and often gave Charles a negative depiction in ecclastical sources. The reallocation of church land was not new by Charles' reign; Ian Wood has managed to identify the practice going back to the reigns of Dagobert I (629–639) and Clovis II (639–657).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wood|first=Ian|date=2013|title=Entrusting Western Europe to the Church, 400–750|journal=Transactions of the Royal Historical Society|volume=23|pages=60–61|doi=10.1017/S0080440113000030|jstor=23726102|s2cid=163341734}}</ref> The majority of the sources that depict Charles' involvement in Church land rights come from the 9th century, and are therefore less reliable, but two supposedly contemporary sources also identify this issue.<ref name="Fouracre-1995d">{{Cite book|last=Fouracre|first=Paul|title=The New Cambridge Medieval History|url=https://archive.org/details/newcambridgemedi00allm|url-access=limited|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1995|editor-last=McKitterick|editor-first=Rosamond|location=Cambridge|pages=[https://archive.org/details/newcambridgemedi00allm/page/n109 88]–90, 91|chapter=Frankish Gaul of 814}}</ref> The first, a letter sent by missionary Saint Boniface to Anglo-Saxon king [[Æthelbald of Mercia]], called Charles' a 'destroyer of many monasteries, and embezzler of Church revenues for his own use...', condemning him for his use of Church property. This is supported by the second source, the ''Contintuations'', which related that, in 733 in Burgundy, Charles split the [[Lyonnais]] between his followers, this likely including Church land.<ref name="Wood-1994d">{{Cite book|last=Wood|first=Ian|title=The Merovingian Kingdoms 450–751|url=https://archive.org/details/merovingiankingd751wood|url-access=limited|publisher=Longman Publishing|year=1994|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/merovingiankingd751wood/page/n265 256], 260, 267, 275–276, 280, 285, 287}}</ref> Further chronicles like the ''[[Gesta episcoporum Autissiodorensium]]'' and the ''[[Gesta sanctorum patrum Fontanellensis coenobii|Gesta Sanctorum Patrum Fontanellensis Coenobii]]'' recorded monasteries losing substantial land. The monastery at [[Auxerre]] was reduced to a hundred ''[[mansus]]'' by Pippin III's reign, and at the [[Abbey of Saint Wandrille]] under Abbot [[Teutsind]], who was appointed by Charles in 735/6, the Church's local property was reduced to a third its size.<ref name="Fouracre-2000c" /> Wood has also criticised this point and proven that the loss of land by the Church was in reality very small, the remaining land being simply leased as it went beyond the Church's capabilities.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wood|first=Ian|title=Property and Power in the Early Middle Ages|url=https://archive.org/details/propertypowerear00davi|url-access=limited|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1995|editor-last=Fouracre|editor-first=Paul|location=Cambridge|pages=[https://archive.org/details/propertypowerear00davi/page/n44 31]–52|chapter=Teutsind, Witlaic and the history of Merovingian precaria|isbn=9780521434195|editor-last2=Davies|editor-first2=Wendy}}</ref> Regardless, it is apparent that Charles' expansion of control consumed plenty of reallocated properties, many of which were ecclesiastical domains.

=====Interregnum, death and divisions=====
When King Theuderic IV died in 737, Charles did not install a Merovingian successor. Unlike his Carolingian predecessors, Charles was strong enough by the end of his reign to not rely on Merovingian loyalties. He had created his own power bloc through the vassals he installed in Frankish heartlands and peripheral states.<ref name="Fouracre-1995c"/> Even prior to Theuderic's death, Charles did act with complete sovereignty in Austrasia. It was only in areas like Neustria, where Carolingian opposition historically existed, that Charles knew he would face criticism if he usurped the throne.<ref name="Wood-1994c">{{Cite book|last=Wood|first=Ian|title=The Merovingian Kingdoms 450–751|url=https://archive.org/details/merovingiankingd751wood|url-access=limited|publisher=Longman Publishing|year=1994|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/merovingiankingd751wood/page/n265 256], 260, 267, 275–276, 285, 287}}</ref>

Therefore, until his death, Charles ruled as ''Princeps'' or First Man/First Citizen, officially gaining the title with his uncontested leadership with the acquisition of Provence in 737.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Collins|first=Roger|title=Charlemagne|publisher=MacMillan Press Ltd|year=1998|location=Basingstoke|pages=30|chapter=The Making of the Carolingian Dynasty}}</ref> This meant that the issue of kingship remained ever present for his successors who would have to work further to establish themselves as royal.

When Charles died in 741, he was buried at [[St Denis Abbey|St Denis]] in Paris. He made secure succession plans, likely learning from his father, that ensured Francia was effectively divided between his sons, [[Carloman (mayor of the palace)|Carloman]] and Pippin as ''maior palatii''. According to the ''Continuations'', the eldest son, Carloman, was given control of the eastern kingdoms in Austrasia, Alammania and Thuringia, while Pippin was given the western kingdoms in Burgundy, Neustria and Provence.<ref name="Nelson-1960b">{{Cite book|title=The Fourth Book of the Chronicle of Fredegar with its continuations|publisher=Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd|year=1960|location=London|pages=32, 43, 50–52, 73–75, 87, 96–97, 102–103|translator-last=Wallace-Hadrill|translator-first=J. M.}}</ref>

==== Charlemagne ====
[[File:Frankish Empire 481 to 814-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|A map showing Charlemagne's additions (in light green) to the [[Frankish Kingdom]]]]
The greatest Carolingian monarch was [[Charlemagne]], Pepin's son. Charlemagne was crowned Emperor by [[Pope Leo III]] at Rome in 800.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charlemagne/Emperor-of-the-Romans|title=Charlemagne – Emperor of the Romans {{!}} Holy Roman emperor [747?–814]|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2017-09-20|language=en}}</ref> His empire, ostensibly a continuation of the [[Western Roman Empire]], is referred to historiographically as the [[Carolingian Empire]].

The Carolingian rulers did not give up the traditional [[Franks|Frankish]] (and [[Merovingian dynasty|Merovingian]]) practice of dividing inheritances among heirs, though the concept of the indivisibility of the Empire was also accepted. The Carolingians had the practice of making their sons minor kings in the various regions (''regna'') of the Empire, which they would inherit on the death of their father, which Charlemagne and his son Louis the Pious both did for their sons. Following the death of the Emperor [[Louis the Pious]] in 840, his surviving adult sons, [[Lothair I]] and [[Louis the German]], along with their adolescent brother [[Charles the Bald]], fought a three-year civil war ending only with the [[Treaty of Verdun]] in 843, which divided the empire into three ''regna'' while according imperial status and a nominal lordship to Lothair who, at 48, was the eldest.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Verdun#ref34135|title=Treaty of Verdun {{!}} France [843]|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2017-09-20|language=en}}</ref> The Carolingians differed markedly from the Merovingians in that they disallowed inheritance to illegitimate offspring, possibly in an effort to prevent infighting among heirs and assure a limit to the division of the realm. In the late ninth century, however, the lack of suitable adults among the Carolingians necessitated the rise of [[Arnulf of Carinthia]] as the king of [[East Francia]], a bastard child of a legitimate Carolingian king, [[Carloman of Bavaria]],<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Arnulf-Holy-Roman-emperor|title=Arnulf {{!}} Holy Roman emperor|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2017-09-20|language=en}}</ref> himself a son of the First King of the Eastern division of the Frankish kingdom, Louis the German.

===Decline===
It was after Charlemagne's death that the dynasty began slowly to crumble. His kingdom was split into three parts, each being ruled over by one of his grandsons. Only the kingdoms of the eastern and western portions survived, becoming the predecessors of modern Germany and France.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.penfield.edu/webpages/jgiotto/onlinetextbook.cfm?subpage=1504023|title=Charlemagne and the Carolingian Empire|website=penfield.edu|language=en|access-date=2017-11-30}}</ref> The Carolingians were displaced in most of the ''regna'' of the Empire by 888. They ruled in [[East Francia]] until 911 and held the throne of [[West Francia]] intermittently until 987. Carolingian cadet branches continued to rule in [[Vermandois]] and [[Lower Lorraine]] after the last king died in 987, but they never sought the royal or imperial thrones and made peace with the new ruling families. One chronicler of [[Sens]] dates the end of Carolingian rule with the coronation of [[Robert II of France]] as junior co-ruler with his father, [[Hugh Capet]], thus beginning the [[Capetian dynasty]].<ref>Lewis, Andrew W. (1981). ''Royal Succession in Capetian France: Studies on Familial Order and the State''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: [[Harvard University Press]], p. 17. {{ISBN|0-674-77985-1}}.</ref>