Editing Cairo (section)

==History==
{{See also|History of Egypt}}
{{For timeline}}

===Ancient settlements===
[[File:Cairo - Coptic area - Roman Tower.JPG|thumb|Remains of a circular Roman tower at [[Babylon Fortress]] (late 3rd century) in [[Old Cairo]]|left]]

The area around present-day Cairo had long been a focal point of [[Ancient Egypt]] due to its strategic location at the junction of the [[Nile|Nile Valley]] and the [[Nile Delta]] regions (roughly [[Upper Egypt]] and [[Lower Egypt]]), which also placed it at the crossing of major routes between [[North Africa]] and the [[Levant]].{{sfn|Gabra|van Loon|Reif|Swelim|2013|p=18}}<ref name="Bloom-2009">{{Cite book|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780195309911 |editor-last=Bloom|editor-first=Jonathan M.|chapter=Cairo|editor-last2=Blair|editor-first2=Sheila S.}}</ref> [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]], the capital of Egypt during the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]] and a major city up until the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemaic period]], was located a short distance south west of present-day Cairo.<ref name="Snape-2014">{{Cite book|last=Snape|first=Steven |title=The Complete Cities of Ancient Egypt |publisher=Thames & Hudson|year=2014|isbn=9780500051795|pages=170–177}}</ref> [[Heliopolis (ancient Egypt)|Heliopolis]], another important city and major religious center, was located in what are now the modern districts of [[El Matareya, Cairo|Matariya]] and [[Ain Shams]] in northeastern Cairo.<ref name="Snape-2014"/><ref>{{cite web |date=2005-06-01 |title=Al-Ahram Weekly &#124; Features &#124; City of the sun |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/744/fe1.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130325171032/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/744/fe1.htm |archive-date=2013-03-25 |access-date=2013-03-26 |publisher=Weekly.ahram.org.eg}}</ref> It was largely destroyed by the [[First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt|Persian invasions]] in 525 BC and 343 BC and partly abandoned by the late first century BC.{{sfn|Gabra|van Loon|Reif|Swelim|2013|p=18}}

However, the origins of modern Cairo are generally traced back to a series of settlements in the first millennium AD. Around the turn of the fourth century,{{sfn|Hawass|Brock|2003|p=456}} as Memphis was continuing to decline in importance,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2009 |title=Memphis (Egypt) |encyclopedia=Encarta |publisher=Microsoft |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761573551/memphis_(egypt).html |access-date=24 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091006040551/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761573551/memphis_(egypt).html |archive-date=6 October 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref> the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] established a large fortress along the east bank of the [[Nile]]. The fortress, called [[Babylon Fortress|Babylon]], was built by the Roman emperor [[Diocletian]] (r. 285–305) at the entrance of a canal connecting the Nile to the [[Red Sea]] that was created earlier by Emperor [[Trajan]] (r. 98–117).{{Efn|The historical chronicler [[John of Nikiou]] attributed the construction of the fortress to Trajan, but more recent excavations date the fortress to the time of Diocletian. A succession of canals connecting the Nile Valley with the Red Sea were also previously dug around this region in different periods prior to Trajan. Trajan's canal fell out of use some time between the reign of Diocletian and the 7th century.}}{{sfn|Gabra|van Loon|Reif|Swelim|2013|pp=20–22}} Further north of the fortress, near the present-day district of [[Azbakeya|al-Azbakiya]], was a [[port]] and fortified outpost known as Tendunyas ({{Langx|cop|ϯⲁⲛⲧⲱⲛⲓⲁⲥ}})<ref>{{Cite book |last=Amelineau |first=Emile |title=La Géographie de l'Egypte À l'Époque Copte |year=1980 |location=Paris |pages=491}}</ref> or Umm Dunayn.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stanley|first=Bruce|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3SapTk5iGDkC&q=history+of+cairo+encyclopedia|title=Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2007 |isbn=978-1-57607-919-5|editor-last=Dumper|editor-first=Michael R.T.|pages=107–114|language=en|chapter=Cairo|editor-last2=Stanley|editor-first2=Bruce}}</ref>{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=6}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meinardus |first=Otto F. A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mFXbAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT169|title=Two Thousand Years of Coptic Christianity|publisher=American University in Cairo Press|year=2002|isbn=978-1-61797-263-8}}</ref> While no structures older than the 7th century have been preserved in the area aside from the Roman fortifications, historical evidence suggests that a sizeable city existed. The city was important enough that its [[bishop]], Cyrus, participated in the [[Second Council of Ephesus]] in 449.{{sfn|Gabra|van Loon|Reif|Swelim|2013|p=33}}

The [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628|Byzantine-Sassanian War]] between 602 and 628 caused great hardship and likely caused much of the urban population to leave for the countryside, leaving the settlement partly deserted.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=6}} The site today remains at the nucleus of the [[Coptic Orthodox]] community, which separated from the Roman and Byzantine churches in the late 4th century. Cairo's oldest extant churches, such as the [[Saint Barbara Church in Coptic Cairo|Church of Saint Barbara]] and the [[Saints Sergius and Bacchus Church (Abu Serga)|Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus]] (from the late 7th or early 8th century), are located inside the fortress walls in what is now known as [[Old Cairo]] or [[Coptic Cairo]].{{sfn|Gabra|van Loon|Reif|Swelim|2013|p=75}}

=== Fustat and other early Islamic settlements ===
{{Further|Egypt in the Middle Ages}}
[[File:CairoFustatHouses.jpg|alt=A man on a donkey walks past a palm tree, with a mosque and market behind Mohamed kamal|thumb|Excavated ruins of [[Fustat]] (2004 photo)]]

The [[Muslim conquest of Egypt|Muslim conquest of Byzantine Egypt]] was led by [[Amr ibn al-As]] from 639 to 642. Babylon Fortress was besieged in September 640 and fell in April 641. In 641 or early 642, after the surrender of [[Alexandria]] (the Egyptian capital at the time), he founded a new settlement next to Babylon Fortress.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=16-18}}{{Sfn|Kennedy|2007|p=161}} The city, known as [[Fustat]] ({{Langx|ar|الفسطاط|translit=al-Fusṭāṭ|lit=the tent}}), served as a garrison town and as the new administrative capital of Egypt. Historians such as [[Janet Abu-Lughod]] and [[André Raymond]] trace the genesis of present-day Cairo to the foundation of Fustat.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=13}}{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=7}} The choice of founding a new settlement at this inland location, instead of using the existing capital of Alexandria on the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] coast, may have been due to the new conquerors' strategic priorities. One of the first projects of the new Muslim administration was to clear and re-open Trajan's ancient [[Canal of the Pharaohs|canal]] in order to ship grain more directly from Egypt to [[Medina]], the capital of the [[Rashidun Caliphate|caliphate]] in [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]].{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=19}}{{Sfn|Kennedy|2007|p=160}}{{Sfn|AlSayyad|2011|p=42}}{{sfn|Gabra|van Loon|Reif|Swelim|2013|p=21}} Ibn al-As also founded a mosque for the city at the same time, now known as the [[Mosque of Amr ibn al-As|Mosque of Amr Ibn al-As]], the oldest mosque in Egypt and Africa (although the current structure dates from later expansions).<ref name="Bloom-2009"/>{{sfn|Gabra|van Loon|Reif|Swelim|2013|p=280}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Campanini |first=Massimo|title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003 |isbn=9780195125580|editor-last=Esposito|editor-first=John L.|chapter=Cairo}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=O'Kane|first=Bernard|title=The Mosques of Egypt|publisher=American University of Cairo Press |year=2016|isbn=9789774167324|page=2}}</ref>

In 750, following the overthrow of the [[Umayyad caliphate]] by the [[Abbasids]], the new rulers created their own settlement to the northeast of Fustat which became the new provincial capital. This was known as [[al-Askar]] ({{Langx|ar|العسكر|lit=the camp}}) as it was laid out like a military camp. A governor's residence and a new mosque were also added, with the latter completed in 786.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=30-31}} The Red Sea canal re-excavated in the 7th century was closed by the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur in [[al-Mansur]] ({{Reign|754|775}}),{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=16}} but a part of the canal, known as the [[Khalij (Cairo)|Khalij]], continued to be a major feature of Cairo's geography and of its water supply until the 19th century.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=134}}<ref name="Bloom-2009" /> In 861, on the orders of the Abbasid caliph [[al-Mutawakkil]], a [[Nilometer]] was built on [[Roda Island]] near Fustat. Although it was repaired and given a new roof in later centuries, its basic structure is still preserved today, making it the oldest preserved Islamic-era structure in Cairo today.{{Sfn|Williams|2018|p=42}}{{Sfn|Behrens-Abouseif|1992|p=50}}

[[File:Kairo_Ibn_Tulun_Moschee_BW_5.jpg|alt=|thumb|The [[Mosque of Ibn Tulun]], built by [[Ahmad ibn Tulun|Ahmad Ibn Tulun]] in 876–879 AD]]

In 868 a commander of [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] origin named Bakbak was sent to Egypt by the Abbasid caliph [[Al-Mu'tazz|al-Mu'taz]] to restore order after a rebellion in the country. He was accompanied by his stepson, [[Ahmad ibn Tulun]], who became effective governor of Egypt. Over time, Ibn Tulun gained an army and accumulated influence and wealth, allowing him to become the ''[[de facto]]'' independent ruler of both Egypt and [[Syria (region)|Syria]] by 878.{{Sfn|Swelim|2015|pp=28-32}}{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=33}}<ref name="Bloom-2009a">{{Cite book|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780195309911|editor-last=Bloom |editor-first=Jonathan M.|chapter=Tulunid |editor-last2=Blair|editor-first2=Sheila S.}}</ref> In 870, he used his growing wealth to found a new administrative capital, [[al-Qata'i]] ({{Langx|ar|القطائـع|lit=the allotments}}), to the northeast of Fustat and of al-Askar.<ref name="Bloom-2009a"/>{{Sfn|Swelim|2015|p=37}} The new city included a palace known as the ''Dar al-Imara'', a parade ground known as ''al-Maydan'', a [[bimaristan]] (hospital), and an [[Aqueduct (water supply)|aqueduct]] to supply water. Between 876 and 879 Ibn Tulun built a great mosque, now known as the [[Mosque of Ibn Tulun]], at the center of the city, next to the palace.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=33}}{{Sfn|Swelim|2015|p=37}} After his death in 884, Ibn Tulun was succeeded by his son and his descendants who continued a short-lived dynasty, the [[Tulunids]]. In 905, the Abbasids sent general Muhammad Sulayman al-Katib to re-assert direct control over the country. Tulunid rule was ended and al-Qatta'i was razed to the ground, except for the mosque which remains standing today.{{Sfn|Swelim|2015|pp=32-37}}{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=34}}

===Foundation and expansion of Cairo===
[[File:The story of Cairo (1906) (14782234955).jpg|left|thumb|A plan of Cairo before 1200 AD, as reconstructed by [[Stanley Lane-Poole]] (1906), showing the location of Fatimid structures, Saladin's [[Cairo Citadel|Citadel]], and earlier sites (Fustat not shown)]]

In 969, the [[Isma'ilism|Shi'a Isma'ili]] Fatimid empire [[Fatimid conquest of Egypt|conquered Egypt]] after ruling from Ifriqiya. The Fatimid general [[Jawhar (general)|Jawhar Al Saqili]] founded a new fortified city northeast of [[Fustat]] and of former al-Qata'i. It took four years to build the city, initially known as al-Manṣūriyyah,{{sfn|Glassé|Smith|2003|p=96}} which was to serve as the new capital of the caliphate.<ref name="AlSayyad2013">{{cite book |last1=AlSayyad |first1=Nezar |title=Cairo: Histories of a City |year=2013 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-07245-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZUkvEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA58}}</ref> During that time, the construction of the [[al-Azhar Mosque]] was commissioned by order of the caliph, which developed into the third-oldest university in the world. Cairo would eventually become a centre of learning, with the library of Cairo containing hundreds of thousands of books.{{sfn|Meri|Bacharach|2006|p=451}} When Caliph [[Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah|al-Mu'izz li Din Allah]] arrived from the old Fatimid capital of [[Mahdia]] in [[Tunisia]] in 973, he gave the city its present name, ''Qāhirat al-Mu'izz'' ("The Vanquisher of al-Mu'izz"),{{sfn|Glassé|Smith|2003|p=96}} from which the name "Cairo" (''al-Qāhira'') originates. The caliphs lived in a vast and lavish [[Fatimid Great Palaces|palace complex]] that occupied the heart of the city. Cairo remained a relatively exclusive royal city for most of this era, but during the tenure of [[Badr al-Jamali|Badr al-Gamali]] as [[vizier]] (1073–1094) the restrictions were loosened for the first time and richer families from Fustat were allowed to move into the city.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=78}} Between 1087 and 1092 Badr al-Gamali also rebuilt the [[Fortifications of Cairo|city walls]] in stone and constructed the city gates of [[Bab al-Futuh]], [[Bab al-Nasr (Cairo)|Bab al-Nasr]], and [[Bab Zuweila]] that still stand today.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=62-63}}

During the Fatimid period Fustat reached its apogee in size and prosperity, acting as a center of craftsmanship and international trade and as the area's main port on the Nile.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=66-69}} Historical sources report that multi-story communal residences existed in the city, particularly in its center, which were typically inhabited by middle and lower-class residents. Some of these were as high as seven stories and could house some 200 to 350 people.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=65}} They may have been similar to Roman ''[[Insula (Roman city)|insulae]]'' and may have been the prototypes for the rental apartment complexes which became common in the later Mamluk and [[Egypt Eyalet|Ottoman]] periods.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=65}}

However, in 1168 the Fatimid vizier [[Shawar]] set fire to the unfortified Fustat to prevent its potential capture by [[Amalric of Jerusalem|Amalric]], the [[Crusades|Crusader]] king of [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]]. While the fire did not destroy the city and it continued to exist afterward, it did mark the beginning of its decline. Over the following centuries it was Cairo, the former palace-city, that became the new economic center and attracted migration from Fustat.{{sfn|Daly|Petry|1998|p=213}}{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|pp=83-85, 103}}

[[File:Cairo-citadel-1800s.jpg|thumb|The [[Cairo Citadel]], seen above in the 19th century, was begun by [[Saladin]] in 1176.|alt=A multi-domed mosque dominates the walled Citadel, with ruined tombs and a lone minaret in front.]]

While the Crusaders did not capture the city in 1168, a continuing power struggle between Shawar, King Amalric, and the [[Zengid]] general [[Shirkuh]] led to the downfall of the Fatimid establishment.{{sfn|Daly|Petry|1998|pp=213–215}} In 1169, Shirkuh's nephew [[Saladin]] was appointed as the new vizier of Egypt by the Fatimids and two years later he seized power from the family of the last Fatimid caliph, [[al-Adid|al-'Āḍid]].{{sfn|Daly|Petry|1998|p=215}} As the first [[Sultan of Egypt]], Saladin established the [[Ayyubid dynasty]], based in Cairo, and aligned Egypt with the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] Abbasids, who were based in [[Baghdad]].{{sfn|Shillington|2005|p=438}} In 1176, Saladin began construction on the [[Cairo Citadel]], which was to serve as the seat of the Egyptian government until the mid-19th century. The construction of the Citadel definitively ended Fatimid-built Cairo's status as an exclusive palace-city and opened it up to common Egyptians and to foreign merchants, spurring its commercial development.<ref name="Denoix-1999">{{Cite book|title=Le Khan al-Khalili et ses environs: Un centre commercial et artisanal au Caire du XIIIe au XXe siècle|publisher=Institut français d'archéologie orientale|year=1999|editor-last=Denoix|editor-first=Sylvie|location=Cairo|editor-last2=Depaule|editor-first2=Jean-Charles|editor-last3=Tuchscherer|editor-first3=Michel}}</ref> Along with the Citadel, Saladin also began the construction of a new 20-kilometre-long wall that would protect both Cairo and Fustat on their eastern side and connect them with the new Citadel. These construction projects continued beyond Saladin's lifetime and were completed under his Ayyubid successors.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=89-97}}

=== Apogee and decline under the Mamluks ===
[[File:Cairo, madrasa del sultano qalaun, 04.JPG|thumb|left|[[Qalawun complex|Mausoleum-Madrasa-Hospital complex]] of [[Qalawun|Sultan Qalawun]], built in 1284–1285 in the center of Cairo, over the remains of a Fatimid palace]]

In 1250, during the [[Seventh Crusade]], the Ayyubid dynasty had a crisis with the death of [[As-Salih Ayyub|al-Salih]] and power transitioned instead to the [[Mamluk]]s, partly with the help of al-Salih's wife, [[Shajar al-Durr|Shajar ad-Durr]], who ruled for a brief period around this time.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=110}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ruggles|first=D.F.|title=Tree of pearls: The extraordinary architectural patronage of the 13th-century Egyptian slave-queen Shajar al-Durr|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2020|pages=}}</ref> Mamluks were soldiers who were purchased as young slaves and raised to serve in the sultan's army. Between 1250 and 1517 the throne of the [[Mamluk Sultanate]] passed from one mamluk to another in a system of succession that was generally non-hereditary, but also frequently violent and chaotic.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|pp=115-117}}{{Sfn|Clot|1996|p=47-48}} The Mamluk Empire nonetheless became a major power in the region and was responsible for repelling the advance of the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] (most famously at the [[Battle of Ain Jalut]] in 1260) and for eliminating the last [[Crusader states]] in the Levant.{{Sfn|Clot|1996|p=34-37, 83-107, 112-118}}

Despite their military character, the Mamluks were also prolific builders and left a rich [[Mamluk architecture|architectural legacy]] throughout Cairo.<ref name="Behrens-2007" /> Continuing a practice started by the Ayyubids, much of the land occupied by former Fatimid palaces was sold and replaced by newer buildings, becoming a prestigious site for the construction of Mamluk religious and funerary complexes.{{sfn|Raymond|2000|p=122}} Construction projects initiated by the Mamluks pushed the city outward while also bringing new infrastructure to the centre of the city.{{sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=120–128}} Meanwhile, Cairo flourished as a centre of [[Islamic studies|Islamic scholarship]] and a crossroads on the [[spice trade]] route among the civilisations in [[Afro-Eurasia]].{{sfn|Shillington|2005|p=199}} Under the reign of the Mamluk sultan [[An-Nasir Muhammad|al-Nasir Muhammad]] (1293–1341, with [[interregnum]]s), Cairo reached its apogee in terms of population and wealth.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=122-124, 140-142}} By 1340, Cairo had a population of close to half a million, making it the largest city west of [[Yuan Dynasty|China]].{{sfn|Shillington|2005|p=199}}

Multi-story buildings occupied by [[Renting|rental]] apartments, known as a ''rab'<nowiki/>'' (plural ''ribā''' or ''urbu''), became common in the Mamluk period and continued to be a feature of the city's housing during the later Ottoman period.<ref name="Sayed-1987">{{Cite thesis |last=Sayed |first=Hazem I. |url=https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/75720 |title=The Rab' in Cairo: A Window on Mamluk Architecture and Urbanism |publisher=MIT |year=1987 |pages=7–9, 58 |hdl=1721.1/75720 |language=en |type=PhD thesis |access-date=11 June 2022 |archive-date=5 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105105118/https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/75720 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=123, 157}} These apartments were often laid out as multi-story [[Duplex (building)|duplexes]] or triplexes. They were sometimes attached to caravanserais, where the two lower floors were for commercial and storage purposes and the multiple stories above them were rented out to tenants. The oldest partially-preserved example of this type of structure is the Wikala of Amir [[Qawsun]], built before 1341.<ref name="Sayed-1987" />{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=123, 157}} Residential buildings were in turn organized into close-knit neighbourhoods called a ''harat'', which in many cases had gates that could be closed off at night or during disturbances.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=123, 157}}

[[File:Zangaki. 0335. Mosquee Kaïd bey.jpg|thumb|[[Complex of Sultan al-Ashraf Qaytbay|Funerary complex of Sultan Qaytbay]], built in 1470–1474 in the [[City of the Dead (Cairo)|Northern Cemetery]] (seen in 1880)|alt=]]

When the traveller [[Ibn Battuta]] first came to Cairo in 1326, he described it as the principal district of Egypt.{{sfn|Battuta|1829|p=13}} When he passed through the area again on his return journey in 1348, the [[Black Death in Egypt|Black Death]] was ravaging most major cities. He cited reports of thousands of deaths per day in Cairo.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bartel |first=Nick |title=Return Home: 1346 - 1349 |work=The Travels of Ibn Battuta |publisher=UC Berkeley, Office of Resources for International and Area Studies |url=https://orias.berkeley.edu/resources-teachers/travels-ibn-battuta/journey/return-home-1346-1349 |access-date=2021-03-21 |url-status=live |archive-date=1 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301135537/https://orias.berkeley.edu/resources-teachers/travels-ibn-battuta/journey/return-home-1346-1349}}</ref>{{sfn|Battuta|1829|p=225}} Although Cairo avoided [[Europe]]'s stagnation during the [[Late Middle Ages]], it could not escape the Black Death, which struck the city more than fifty times between 1348 and 1517.{{sfn|Shoshan|2002|p=4}} During its initial, and most deadly waves, approximately 200,000 people were killed by the plague,{{sfn|Byrne|2004|pp=104–105}} and, by the 15th century, Cairo's population had been reduced to between 150,000 and 300,000.{{sfn|Shoshan|2002|p=1}} The population decline was accompanied by a period of political instability between 1348 and 1412. It was nonetheless in this period that the largest Mamluk-era religious monument, the [[Mosque-Madrasa of Sultan Hassan|Madrasa-Mosque of Sultan Hasan]], was built.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|pp=143-147}} In the late 14th century, the [[Burji dynasty|Burji Mamluks]] replaced the [[Bahri dynasty|Bahri Mamluks]] as rulers of the Mamluk state, but the Mamluk system continued to decline.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|pp=169-177}}

Though the plagues returned frequently throughout the 15th century, Cairo remained a major metropolis and its population recovered in part through [[Urbanization|rural migration]].{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|pp=169-177}} More conscious efforts were conducted by rulers and city officials to redress the city's infrastructure and cleanliness. Its economy and politics also became more deeply connected with the wider Mediterranean.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|pp=169-177}} Some Mamluk sultans in this period, such as [[Barsbay|Barbsay]] (r. 1422–1438) and [[Qaitbay|Qaytbay]] (r. 1468–1496), had relatively long and successful reigns.{{Sfn|Clot|1996|pp=183, 222-230}} After al-Nasir Muhammad, Qaytbay was one of the most prolific patrons of art and architecture of the Mamluk era. He built or restored numerous monuments in Cairo, in addition to commissioning projects beyond Egypt.{{Sfn|Clot|1996|p=223}}{{Sfn|Behrens-Abouseif|2007|p=69}} The crisis of Mamluk power and of Cairo's economic role deepened after Qaytbay. The city's status was diminished after [[Vasco da Gama]] discovered a sea route around the [[Cape of Good Hope]] between 1497 and 1499, thereby allowing spice traders to avoid Cairo.{{sfn|Shillington|2005|p=199}}

===Ottoman rule===
{{Further|History of Ottoman Egypt}}
{{See also|Muhammad Ali's seizure of power}}
[[File:Environs du Kaire (Cairo). Plan général de Boulâq, du Kaire, de l'île de Roudah (el-Rôda), du Vieux Kaire et de Gyzeh (Jîzah) (NYPL b14212718-1268726).jpg|thumb|left|Map of Cairo in 1809, from the ''[[Description de l'Égypte]]'']]

Cairo's political influence diminished significantly after the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] defeated [[Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghuri|Sultan al-Ghuri]] in the [[Battle of Marj Dabiq]] in 1516 and [[Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517)|conquered Egypt]] in 1517. Ruling from [[Constantinople]], [[List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire|Sultan]] [[Selim I]] relegated Egypt to a [[Eyalet|province]], with Cairo as its capital.{{sfn|Shillington|2005|p=447}} For this reason, the history of Cairo during Ottoman times is often described as inconsequential, especially in comparison to other time periods.{{sfn|Shillington|2005|p=199}}{{sfn|Winter|1992|p=225}}<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rose |first1=Christopher |last2=Boxberger |first2=Linda |year=1995 |title=Ottoman Cairo |work=Cairo: Living Past, Living Future |publisher=The University of Texas Centre for Middle Eastern Studies |url=http://menic.utexas.edu/cairo/history/ottoman/ottoman.html |access-date=30 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070606231911/http://menic.utexas.edu/cairo/history/ottoman/ottoman.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 June 2007}}</ref>

During the 16th and 17th centuries, Cairo still remained an important economic and cultural centre. Although no longer on the spice route, the city facilitated the transportation of [[Yemen]]i [[coffee]] and [[India]]n [[textile]]s, primarily to [[Anatolia]], [[North Africa]], and the [[Balkans]]. Cairene merchants were instrumental in bringing goods to the barren [[Hejaz]], especially during the annual [[hajj]] to [[Mecca]].{{sfn|Winter|1992|p=225}}{{sfn|İnalcık|Faroqhi|Quataert|McGowan|1997|pp=507–509}} It was during this same period that [[al-Azhar University]] reached the predominance among Islamic schools that it continues to hold today;{{sfn|Winter|2004|p=115}}{{sfn|Daly|Petry|1998|pp=94–95}} pilgrims on their way to hajj often attested to the superiority of the institution, which had become associated with Egypt's body of [[Ulema|Islamic scholars]].{{sfn|Winter|2004|pp=115–117}} The first printing press of the Middle East, printing in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], was established in Cairo {{circa|1557}} by a scion of the [[Soncino family (printers)|Soncino]] family of printers, [[Italian Jews]] of [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazi]] origin who operated a press in Constantinople. The existence of the press is known solely from two fragments discovered in the [[Cairo Geniza]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=ROWLAND-SMITH |first=DIANA |title=The Beginnings of Hebrew Printing in Egypt |date=1989 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42554269 |journal=The British Library Journal |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=16–22 |jstor=42554269 |issn=0305-5167 |access-date=22 May 2022 |archive-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531175722/https://www.jstor.org/stable/42554269 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Louis Comfort Tiffany - On the Way between Old and New Cairo, Citadel Mosque of Mohammed Ali, and Tombs of the Mamelukes - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|right|[[Louis Comfort Tiffany]] (1848–1933). ''On the Way Between Old and New Cairo, Citadel Mosque of Mohammed Ali, and Tombs of the Mamelukes'', 1872. Oil on canvas. [[Brooklyn Museum]].]]

Under the Ottomans, Cairo expanded south and west from its nucleus around the Citadel.{{sfn|Winter|1992|p=226}} The city was the second-largest in the empire, behind Constantinople, and, although migration was not the primary source of Cairo's growth, twenty percent of its population at the end of the 18th century consisted of religious minorities and foreigners from around the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]].{{sfn|Winter|1992|pp=226–227}} Still, when [[Napoleon I|Napoleon]] arrived in Cairo in 1798, the city's population was less than 300,000, forty percent lower than it was at the height of Mamluk—and Cairene—influence in the mid-14th century.{{sfn|Shillington|2005|p=199}}{{sfn|Winter|1992|pp=226–227}}

The [[Campaign of Egypt|French occupation]] was short-lived as [[British Empire|British]] and Ottoman forces, including a sizeable [[Albanians|Albanian]] contingent, recaptured the country in 1801. Cairo itself [[Siege of Cairo|was besieged]] by a British and Ottoman force culminating with the French surrender on 22 June 1801.{{sfn|Sicker|2001|p=103}} The British vacated Egypt two years later, leaving the Ottomans, the Albanians, and the long-weakened [[Mamluk]]s jostling for control of the country.{{sfn|Sicker|2001|p=104}}{{sfn|Afaf Lutfi Sayyid-Marsot|1984|p=39}} Continued civil war allowed an Albanian named [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha]] to ascend to the role of [[commander]] and eventually, with the approval of the [[ulema|religious establishment]], viceroy of Egypt in 1805.{{sfn|Sicker|2001|pp=104–105}}

===Modern era===
{{Further|History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty|History of modern Egypt}}
[[File:Georg Macco Kairo.jpg|thumb|right|Cairo in the late 19th century, [[Georg Macco]] (1863–1933), oil on canvas.]]

Until his death in 1848, [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha]] instituted a number of social and economic reforms that earned him the title of founder of modern Egypt.{{sfn|Afaf Lutfi Sayyid-Marsot|1984|p=1}}{{sfn|McGregor|2006|p=53}} However, while Muhammad Ali initiated the construction of public buildings in the city,{{sfn|Shillington|2005|p=437}} those reforms had minimal effect on Cairo's landscape.{{sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=291, 302}} Bigger changes came to Cairo under [[Isma'il Pasha]] (r. 1863–1879), who continued the modernisation processes started by his grandfather.<ref>Roman Adrian Cybriwsky, ''Capital Cities around the World: An Encyclopedia of Geography, History, and Culture'', ABC-CLIO, USA, 2013, p. 76</ref> Drawing inspiration from [[Paris]], Isma'il envisioned a city of [[Tahrir Square|maidans]] and wide avenues; due to financial constraints, only some of them, in the area now composing [[Downtown Cairo]], came to fruition.{{sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=313–314}} Isma'il also sought to modernize the city, which was merging with neighbouring settlements, by establishing a [[public works]] ministry, bringing [[natural gas|gas]] and lighting to the city, and opening a theatre and opera house.{{sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=311–313}}{{sfn|Abu-Lughod|1965|pp=436–444}}

The immense debt resulting from Isma'il's projects provided a pretext for increasing European control, which culminated with the [[1882 Anglo-Egyptian War|British invasion]] in 1882.{{sfn|Shillington|2005|p=199}} The city's economic centre quickly moved west toward the [[Nile]], away from the historic [[Islamic Cairo]] section and toward the contemporary, European-style areas built by Isma'il.{{sfn|Abu-Lughod|1965|pp=429–431, 455–457}}{{sfn|Hourani|Khoury|Wilson|2004|p=317}} Europeans accounted for five percent of Cairo's population at the end of the 19th century, by which point they held most top governmental positions.{{sfn|Abu-Lughod|1965|p=431}}

In 1906, the [[Cairo Electric Railways & Heliopolis Oases Company|Heliopolis Oasis Company]] headed by the [[Belgians|Belgian]] industrialist [[Édouard Empain]] and his Egyptian counterpart [[Boghos Nubar]], built a suburb called [[Heliopolis, Cairo|Heliopolis]] (city of the sun in Greek) ten kilometers from the center of Cairo.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=329}}{{Sfn|Elyachar|2005|p=56}} In 1905–1907 the northern part of the [[Gezira (Cairo)|Gezira]] island was developed by the Baehler Company into [[Zamalek]], which would later become Cairo's upscale "chic" neighbourhood.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=328}} In 1906 construction began on Garden City, a neighbourhood of urban villas with gardens and curved streets.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=328}}

[[File:كوبري قصر النيل القاهرة.jpg|thumb|[[Qasr El Nil Bridge]]]]
[[File:CH-NB Photoglob-Wehrli EAD-WEHR-32043-B.tiff|thumb|Aerial view in 1904 from a balloon of the central-eastern edge of Cairo, showing the early development of [[Zamalek|Gezira/Zamalek Island]] (center left), and [[Downtown Cairo|Downtown]] (lower right), as well as [[Boulaq|Bulaq]] (upper right).]]
The British occupation was intended to be temporary, but it lasted well into the 20th century. Nationalists staged [[Egyptian Revolution of 1919|large-scale demonstrations]] in Cairo in 1919,{{sfn|Shillington|2005|p=199}} five years after Egypt had been declared a British [[protectorate]].{{sfn|Hourani|Khoury|Wilson|2004|p=12}} Nevertheless, this led to Egypt's [[Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence|independence in 1922]].

The [[King Fuad I Edition]] of the [[Qur'an]]<ref>{{cite journal |publisher=Brill Online |doi=10.1163/1875-3922_q3_intro |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-3922_q3_intro |title=Supplement II - Qurʾān Concordance |work=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān |editor=Jane Dammen McAuliffe |access-date=10 July 2020 |archive-date=10 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230110142306/https://dx.doi.org/10.1163%2F1875-3922_q3_intro |url-status=live }}</ref> was first published on 10 July 1924 in Cairo under the patronage of [[Fuad I of Egypt|King Fuad]].<ref>{{cite thesis |type=PhD |last=Brockett |first=Adrian Alan |date=1985 |url=https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/handle/10023/2770 |title=Studies in two transmissions of the Qur'an |publisher=University of St Andrews |hdl=10023/2770 |via=St. Andrews Research Repository |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200714092045/https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/handle/10023/2770 |archive-date=14 July 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=malay>Peter G. Riddell, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tq1v_V4haj4C&q=nafi'%20al%20madani&pg=PA164 Early Malay Qur'anic exegical activity] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727170904/https://books.google.com/books?id=Tq1v_V4haj4C&pg=PA164&dq=nafi%27+al+madani&hl=en#v=onepage&q=nafi'%20al%20madani |date=27 July 2020 }}, p. 164. Taken from ''Islam and the Malay-Indonesian World: Transmission and Responses''. London: [[C. Hurst & Co.]], 2001. {{ISBN|9781850653363}}</ref> The goal of the government of the newly formed [[Kingdom of Egypt]] was not to delegitimize the other variant Quranic texts ("[[qira'at]]"), but to eliminate errors found in Qur'anic texts used in state schools. A committee of teachers chose to preserve a single one of the canonical qira'at "readings", namely that of the "[[Ḥafṣ]]" version,{{Sfn|Böwering|2008|p=74}} an 8th-century [[Kufic recitation]]. This edition has become the standard for modern printings of the Quran<ref name="rippin">{{cite book |last=Rippin, Andrew |url=https://archive.org/details/blackwellcompani00ripp_0 |title=The Blackwell companion to the Qur'an |publisher=Blackwell |year=2006 |isbn=978140511752-4 |edition=[2a reimpr.]|display-authors=etal}}
* For the history of compilation see ''Introduction'' by [[Tamara Sonn]] pp. 5–6</ref><ref name=melchert2>{{cite journal |last=Melchert |first=Christopher |title=Ibn Mujahid and the Establishment of Seven Qur'anic Readings |journal=Studia Islamica |year=2000 |issue=91 |pages=5–22 |doi=10.2307/1596266 |jstor=1596266}}</ref> for much of the Islamic world.<ref>Aisha Geissinger, [https://books.google.com/books?id=7lPFCQAAQBAJ&q=warsh&pg=PA79 Gender and Muslim Constructions of Exegetical Authority: A Rereading of the Classical Genre of Qurʾān Commentary] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727160709/https://books.google.com/books?id=7lPFCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA79&dq=warsh+quran&hl=en#v=onepage&q=warsh |date=27 July 2020 }}, pg. 79. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2015. {{ISBN|9789004294448}}</ref> The publication has been called a "terrific success", and the edition has been described as one "now widely seen as the official text of the Qur'an", so popular among both Sunni and Shi'a that the common belief among less well-informed Muslims is "that the Qur'an has a single, unambiguous reading". Minor amendments were made later in 1924 and in 1936 - the "Faruq edition" in honour of then ruler, [[King Faruq]].{{Sfn|Reynolds|2008|p=2}}

====British occupation until 1956====
[[File:Cairo Street 1950's.tif|thumb|Everyday life in Cairo, 1950s]]

British troops remained in the country until 1956. During this time, urban Cairo, spurred by new bridges and transport links, continued to expand to include the upscale neighbourhoods of Garden City, Zamalek, and Heliopolis.{{sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=326–329}} Between 1882 and 1937, the population of Cairo more than tripled—from 347,000 to 1.3 million{{sfn|Raymond|2000|p=319}}—and its area increased from {{cvt|10|to|163|km2|sqmi|0}}.{{sfn|Raymond|2000|p=322}}

The city was devastated during the 1952 riots known as the [[Cairo Fire]] or Black Saturday, which saw the destruction of nearly 700 shops, movie theatres, casinos and hotels in downtown Cairo.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.ahram.org.eg/433/2011/02/04/457/55/Malafat.aspx |script-title=ar:خسائر الحريق |date=12 May 2010 |journal=[[Al-Ahram]] |trans-title=The Fire Damage |language=ar |access-date=4 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512021201/http://www.ahram.org.eg/433/2011/02/04/457/55/Malafat.aspx |archive-date=12 May 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The British departed Cairo following the [[Egyptian Revolution of 1952]], but the city's rapid growth showed no signs of abating. Seeking to accommodate the increasing population, [[President of Egypt|President]] [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] redeveloped [[Tahrir Square]] and the Nile [[Corniche]], and improved the city's network of bridges and highways.{{sfn|Raymond|2000|p=349}} Meanwhile, additional controls of the Nile fostered development within Gezira Island and along the city's waterfront. The metropolis began to encroach on the fertile [[Nile Delta]], prompting the government to build desert [[satellite town]]s and devise incentives for city-dwellers to move to them.{{sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=343–345}}

====After 1956====
In the second half of the 20th century, Cairo continue to grow enormously in both population and area. Between 1947 and 2006, the population of [[Greater Cairo]] went from 2,986,280 to 16,292,269.{{Sfn|Sims|2012|p=83}} The population explosion also drove the rise of "informal" housing (''<nowiki/>'ashwa'iyyat''), meaning housing that was built without any official planning or control.{{Sfn|Sims|2012|p=95}} The exact form of this type of housing varies considerably but usually has a much higher population density than formal housing. By 2009, over 63% of the population of Greater Cairo lived in informal neighbourhoods, even though these occupied only 17% of the total area of Greater Cairo.{{Sfn|Sims|2012|p=96}} According to economist David Sims, informal housing has the benefits of providing affordable accommodation and vibrant communities to huge numbers of Cairo's working classes, but it also suffers from government neglect, a relative lack of services, and overcrowding.{{Sfn|Sims|2012|pp=120-122}}

The "formal" city was also expanded. The most notable example was the creation of [[Nasr City|Madinat Nasr]], a huge government-sponsored expansion of the city to the east which officially began in 1959 but was primarily developed in the mid-1970s.{{Sfn|Sims|2012|pp=52-53}} Starting in 1977 the Egyptian government established the New Urban Communities Authority to initiate and direct the development of new planned cities on the outskirts of Cairo, generally established on desert land.<ref name="Ali-2020a">{{Cite book |last=Ali |first=Amal K. |title=The Routledge Handbook of Planning Megacities in the Global South |publisher=Routledge |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-000-06205-2 |editor-last=Rukmana |editor-first=Deden |pages=337–339 |language=en |chapter=Challenges in Managing Urban Growth: The Case of Cairo |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=InnpDwAAQBAJ&dq=badr+city+cairo&pg=PT364}}</ref><ref name="UNECA-2017">{{Cite book |last=United Nations Economic Commission for Africa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cTHLDwAAQBAJ&dq=cairo+first+generation+cities&pg=PA150 |title=Economic Report on Africa 2017: Urbanization and Industrialization for Africa's Transformation |publisher=United Nations |year=2017 |isbn=978-92-1-060392-8 |pages=150 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sims |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OWtjEAAAQBAJ |title=Egypt's Desert Dreams: Development or Disaster? |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-61797-884-5 |language=en|edition=New }}</ref> These new satellite cities were intended to provide housing, investment, and employment opportunities for the region's growing population as well as to pre-empt the further growth of informal neighbourhoods.<ref name="Ali-2020a"/> As of 2014, about 10% of the population of Greater Cairo lived in the new cities.<ref name="Ali-2020a"/>

Concurrently, Cairo established itself as a political and economic hub for [[North Africa]] and the [[Arab world]], with many multinational businesses and organisations, including the [[Arab League]], operating out of the city. In 1979 the [[Islamic Cairo|historic districts]] of Cairo were listed as a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]].<ref name="UNESCO-2017" />

In 1992, Cairo was hit by an [[1992 Cairo earthquake|earthquake]] causing 545 deaths, injuring 6,512 and leaving around 50,000 people homeless.<ref name="NGDC">{{cite web |url=https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/earthquake/event-more-info/5339|title=Significant Earthquake Information|last=National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS): NCEI/WDS Global Significant Earthquake Database. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information|year=1972 |publisher=NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information|doi=10.7289/V5TD9V7K}}</ref>

====2011 Egyptian revolution====
{{Main|2011 Egyptian revolution}}
[[File:The lion of Egyptian revolution (Qasr al-Nil Bridge)-edit2.jpg|thumb|upright|A protester holding an Egyptian flag during the [[2011 Egyptian revolution|protests]] that started on 25 January 2011]]

Cairo's [[Tahrir Square]] was the focal point of the [[2011 Egyptian revolution]] against former president [[Hosni Mubarak]].<ref>{{cite news |date=26 January 2011 |title=Egypt protests: Anti-Mubarak demonstrators arrested |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12289475 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110126195024/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12289475 |archive-date=26 January 2011 |access-date=26 January 2011 |work=BBC News}}</ref> More than 50,000 protesters first occupied the square on 25 January, during which the area's wireless services were reported to be impaired.<ref name="Egyptians report poor communication services on Day of Anger">{{cite web |url=http://www.almasryalyoum.com/en/news/egyptians-report-poor-communication-services-day-anger-1 |title=Egyptians report poor communication services on Day of Anger |publisher=[[Almasry Alyoum]] |date=25 January 2011 |access-date=25 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110130064424/http://www.almasryalyoum.com/en/news/egyptians-report-poor-communication-services-day-anger-1 |archive-date=30 January 2011}}</ref> In the following days Tahrir Square continued to be the primary destination for protests in Cairo.<ref>{{cite news |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12312330 |title=Egypt protests: curfew defied in Cairo and other cities |date=29 January 2011 |access-date=29 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110129055957/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12312330 |archive-date=29 January 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> The uprising was mainly a campaign of non-violent civil resistance, which featured a series of demonstrations, marches, acts of civil disobedience, and labour strikes. Millions of protesters from a variety of socio-economic and religious backgrounds demanded the overthrow of the regime of Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak. Despite being predominantly peaceful in nature, the revolution was not without violent clashes between security forces and protesters, with at least 846 people killed and 6,000 injured. The uprising took place in Cairo, Alexandria, and in other cities in Egypt, following the [[Tunisian revolution]] that resulted in the overthrow of the long-time [[President of Tunisia|Tunisian president]] [[Zine El Abidine Ben Ali]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jan/14/tunisian-president-flees-country-protests |website=The Guardian |title=Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali forced to flee Tunisia as protesters claim victory |last1=Chrisafis |first1=Angelique |date=15 January 2011 |access-date=23 April 2018 |last2=Black |first2=Ian |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110115053940/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/jan/14/tunisian-president-flees-country-protests |archive-date=15 January 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> On 11 February, following weeks of determined popular protest and pressure, Hosni Mubarak resigned from office.

====Post-revolutionary Cairo====
Under the rule of President [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi|el-Sisi]], in March 2015 plans were announced for another yet-unnamed [[planned city]] to be built further east of the existing satellite city of [[New Cairo]], intended to serve as the [[Proposed new capital of Egypt|new capital of Egypt]].<ref name="BBC: new capital">{{cite news |title=Egypt unveils plans to build new capital east of Cairo |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-31874886 |work=BBC News |date=13 March 2015 |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150313202550/http://www.bbc.com/news/business-31874886 |archive-date=13 March 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>