Editing Caesarea Maritima (section)

==History==
===Classical antiquity===
''Stratonos pyrgos'' (Straton's Tower) was founded in the 4th century BCE by [[Abdashtart I]], or Straton I king of [[Sidon]].<ref name=Straton>{{cite journal |jstor= 1356838 |title= The Problem of the Location of Straton's Tower |journal= Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research |issue= 252 |author1= Duane W. Roller |author2= Robert L. Hohlfelder |pages= 61–68|year= 1983 |doi= 10.2307/1356838 |s2cid= 163628792 }}</ref> It was first established as a [[Phoenicia|Phoenician]] colony and trading village.<ref name=Routledge/> In 90 BCE, Jewish ruler [[Alexander Jannaeus]] captured Straton's Tower as part of his policy of developing the shipbuilding industry and enlarging the [[Hasmonean dynasty|Hasmonean kingdom]].<ref name="Straton" /> Straton's Tower remained a Jewish settlement for two more generations, until the area became dominated by the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]]s in 63 BCE, when they declared it an autonomous city.<ref name="Straton" />

====Herodian Caesarea====
[[File:Caesarea Maritima aqueduct.jpg|thumb|The Roman aqueduct]][[File:אמפי קיסריה.jpg|thumb|The theatre]]
Caesarea was built in [[Judaea (Roman province)|Roman Judea]] under the Jewish client King [[Herod the Great]] during {{circa}} 22-10/9 BCE near the ruins of the small naval station of Straton's Tower.<ref name="Straton" /> The site, along with all of Judea, was awarded by Rome to Herod in 30 BCE.<ref name="UNESCO">"In the year 30 BCE the (Phoenician) village was awarded to Herod, who built a large port city at the site, and called it "Caesarea" in honor of his patron Octavian Augustus Caesar....The city transformed rapidly into a great commercial centre, and by the year 6 BCE became the headquarters of the Roman government in Palestine. Since Caesarea had no rivers or springs, drinking water for the prospering Roman and Byzantine city was brought via a unique high-level aqueduct, originating at the nearby Shuni springs, some 7.5&nbsp;km northeast of Caesarea. [...] Caesarea served as a base for the Roman legions who quelled the Great Revolt that erupted in 66 BCE [sic], and it was here that their commanding general Vespasian was declared Caesar. After the destruction of Jerusalem, Caesarea became the most important city in the country: Pagans, Samaritans, Jews and Christians lived here in the third and fourth centuries CE.''[https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1480/ UNESCO tentative list:Caesarea]''</ref> The pagan city underwent vast changes under Herod, who renamed it Caesarea in honour of the Roman emperor, [[Caesar Augustus]].<ref name="Straton" /><ref name="nie" /> Caesarea was known as the administrative, economic, and cultural capital of the Judean province from this time.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Masalha |first=Nur |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1046449706 |title=Palestine : a four thousand year history |date=2018 |isbn=978-1-78699-272-7 |location=London |pages=93 |oclc=1046449706}}</ref>[[File:Caesarea Maritima BW 2010-09-23 09-26-26 stitch.jpg|thumb|The Herodian hippodrome]]In 22 BCE, Herod began construction of a deep-sea harbour named Sebastos and built storerooms, markets, wide roads, baths, a temple to the [[Roma (personification)|goddess Roma]] and Emperor [[Augustus]], and imposing public buildings.<ref>Crossan, 1999, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=GaYKGrqXCwEC&pg=PA232 232]</ref> Herod built his palace on a promontory jutting out into the sea, with a decorative pool surrounded by [[stoa]]s.<ref name="nie" /><ref name="UNESCO" /> Every five years, the city hosted major sports competitions, gladiator games, and theatrical productions in its theatre overlooking the Mediterranean Sea.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hohlfelder |first=Robert L. |title=Caesarea |journal=Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary |volume=1 |pages=800}}</ref>

===== Sebastos harbor =====
[[File:125423 caesarea national park PikiWiki Israel.jpg|thumb|The harbor]]
Herod built the two [[jetty|jetties]] of the harbour between 22 and 15 BCE,<ref name="Votruba2007">Votruba, G., 2007, Imported building materials of Sebastos Harbour, Israel, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 36: 325-335.</ref> and in 10/9 BCE he dedicated the city and harbour to Emperor Augustus (''[[sebastos]]'' is Greek for ''[[Augustus (honorific)|augustus]]'').<ref>Raban, A., 1992. Sebastos: the royal harbour at Caesarea Maritima - a short-lived giant, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 21: 111-124.</ref> The pace of construction was impressive considering the project's size and complexity.<ref name="Hohlfelder2007">Hohlfelder, R. 2007. "Constructing the Harbour of Caesarea Palaestina, Israel: New Evidence from ROMACONS Field Campaign of October 2005". International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 36:409-415.</ref> At its height, Sebastos was one of the most impressive harbours of its time. It had been constructed on a coast that had no natural harbours and served as an important commercial harbour in antiquity, rivaling [[Cleopatra|Cleopatra's]] harbour at [[Alexandria]]. [[Josephus]] writes: "Although the location was generally unfavorable, [Herod] contended with the difficulties so well that the solidity of the construction could not be overcome by the sea, and its beauty seemed finished off without impediment."<ref name="Holum1988">Holum, K. 1988. King Herod's Dream: Caesarea on the Sea. New York: Norton.</ref>

When it was built in the 1st century BCE, the harbour of Sebastos ranked as the largest artificial harbour built in the open sea, enclosing around 100,000 m<sup>2</sup>.<ref name="Menachery87">George Menachery, 1987 in Kodungallur, City of St. Thomas, Azhikode, 1987, Chapter II note 19 quotes the National Geographic article: Robert L. Hohlfelder, "Caesarea Maritima, Herod the Great's City on the Sea". ''[[The National Geographic]]'', 171/2, February 1987, pp. 260-79.<br />2000 years ago, Caesarea Maritima welcomed ships to its harbour called Sebastos. Featuring innovative design and hydraulic concrete, this building feat set a standard for harbours to come. A monumental work, city and harbour were constructed on an unstable storm-battered shore, at a site lacking a protective cape or bay. The project challenged Rome's most skilled engineers. Hydraulic concrete blocks, some weighing {{convert|50|ST}} anchored the north breakwater of the artificial harbour ... Caesarea Maritima, rival to Alexandria in the Eastern trade, a city worthy to be named for Herod's patron, Caesar Augustus, master of the Roman world, in view of its opulence and magnificence.</ref><ref name="Hohlfelder2007" /><ref>Votruba, G. 2007. "Imported Building Materials of Sebastos Harbour, Israel." International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 36:325-335.</ref>

The [[breakwater (structure)|breakwater]]s were made of [[Lime (material)|lime]] and [[pozzolana]], a type of volcanic ash, set into an underwater concrete. Herod imported over 24,000 m<sup>3</sup> of pozzolana from the name-giving town of [[Pozzuoli|Puteoli, today Pozzuoli]] in Italy, to construct the two breakwaters: the southern one 500 meter, and the northern one 275 meter long.<ref name="Hohlfelder2007" />

A shipment of this size would have required at least 44 shiploads of 400 tons each.<ref name="Votruba2007" /> Herod also had 12,000 m<sup>3</sup> of local [[kurkar]] stone quarried to make rubble and 12,000 m<sup>3</sup> of slaked lime mixed with the pozzolana.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Porath |first1=Yosef |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1fzhdc0 |title=Caesarea Maritima I: Herod's circus and related buildings Part 1: Architecture and stratigraphy |last2=Epstein |first2=Mindi |last3=Friedman |first3=Zaraza |last4=Michaeli |first4=Talila |date=2013 |publisher=Israel Antiquities Authority |isbn=978-965-406-379-1 |editor-last=Hurowitz |editor-first=Ann Roshwalb |volume=53|jstor=j.ctt1fzhdc0 }}</ref>

Architects had to devise a way to lay the wooden forms for the placement of concrete underwater. One technique was to drive stakes into the ground to make a box and then fill it with pozzolana concrete bit by bit.<ref name=Hohlfelder2007/> However, this method required many divers to hammer the planks to the stakes underwater and large quantities of pozzolana were necessary.

Another technique was a double planking method used in the northern breakwater. On land, carpenters would construct a box with beams and frames on the inside and a watertight, double-planked wall on the outside. This double wall was built with a {{convert|23|cm|0|abbr=on}} gap between the inner and outer layer.<ref name=Brandon1996>Brandon, C., 1996, Cements, Concrete, and Settling Barges at Sebastos: Comparisons with Other Roman Harbor Examples and the Descriptions of Vitruvius, Caesarea Maritima: A Retrospective after Two Millennia, 25-40.</ref>

Although the box had no bottom, it was buoyant enough to float out to sea because of the watertight space between the inner and outer walls. Once it was floated into position, pozzolana was poured into the gap between the walls and the box would sink into place on the seafloor and be staked down in the corners. The flooded inside area was then filled by divers bit by bit with pozzolana-lime mortar and kurkar rubble until it rose [[Above mean sea level|above sea level]].<ref name=Brandon1996/>

On the southern breakwater, [[barge]] construction was used. The southern side of Sebastos was much more exposed than the northern side, requiring sturdier breakwaters. Instead of using the double planked method filled with rubble, the architects sank barges filled with layers of pozzolana concrete and lime sand mortar. The barges were similar to boxes without lids, and were constructed using [[mortise and tenon]] joints, the same technique used in ancient boats, to ensure they remained watertight. The barges were ballasted with 0.5 meters of pozzolana concrete and floated out to their position. With alternating layers, pozzolana-based and lime-based concretes were hand-placed inside the barge to sink it and fill it up to the surface.<ref name=Brandon1996/>

However, there were underlying problems that led to its demise. Studies of the concrete cores of the moles have shown that the concrete was much weaker than similar pozzolana hydraulic concrete used in ancient Italian ports. For unknown reasons, the pozzolana mortar did not adhere as well to the [[kurkar]] rubble as it did to other rubble types used in Italian harbours.<ref name=Hohlfelder2007/> Small but numerous holes in some of the cores also indicate that the lime was of poor quality and stripped out of the mixture by strong waves before it could set.<ref name=Hohlfelder2007/>

Also, large lumps of lime were found in all five of the cores studied at Caesarea, which shows that the mixture was not mixed thoroughly.<ref name=Hohlfelder2007/> However, stability would not have been seriously affected if the harbour had not been constructed over a [[geological fault line]] that runs along the coast. Seismic action gradually took its toll on the breakwaters, causing them to tilt down and settle into the seabed.<ref name=Holum1988/> Studies of seabed deposits at Caesarea have shown that a [[tsunami]] struck the area sometime during the 1st or 2nd century.<ref>Reinhardt, E., Goodman, B., Boyce, J., Lopez, G., Hengstum, P., Rink, W., Mart, Y., Raban, A. 2006. "The Tsunami of 13 December A.D. 115 and the Destruction of Herod the Great's Harbor at Caesarea Maritima, Israel." Geology 34:1061-1064.</ref>

Although it is unknown if this tsunami simply damaged or completely destroyed the harbour, it is known that by the 6th century the harbour was unusable and today the jetties lie more than 5 meters underwater.<ref>Raban, A., 1992, Sebastos: the royal harbour at Caesarea Maritima - a short-lived giant, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 21: 111-124.</ref>

====Roman Caeserea====
[[File:Caesarea maritima BW 3.JPG|thumb|250px|The Roman double aqueduct that brought water from the foot of the [[Mount Carmel|Carmel range]] to Caesarea]][[File:Ruins and mosaics in Caesarea Maritima.jpg|thumb|Mosaics]]When [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judea]] became a Roman province in 6 CE, Caesarea replaced [[Jerusalem]] as its civilian and military capital and became the official residence of its governors, such as procurator [[Antonius Felix]] and prefect [[Pontius Pilatus]].<ref>''A History of the Jewish People'', H. H. Ben-Sasson editor, 1976, page 247: "When Judea was converted into a Roman province [in 6 CE, page 246], Jerusalem ceased to be the administrative capital of the country. The Romans moved the governmental residence and military headquarters to Caesarea. The centre of government was thus removed from Jerusalem, and the administration became increasingly based on inhabitants of the Hellenistic cities ([[Sebastia, Nablus|Sebaste]], Caesarea and others)."</ref> The city was chiefly a commercial centre relying on trade.

Caeserea is described in detail by the 1st-century Roman Jewish historian [[Flavius Josephus]].<ref>''[[Jewish Antiquities]]'' XV.331ff; ''[[The Jewish War]]'', I.408ff</ref> Josephus describes the harbour as being as large as the one at [[Piraeus]], the major harbour of [[Athens]].<ref name="Menachery87" /> Remains of the principal buildings erected by [[Herod the Great]] as well as the medieval town are still visible today, including the Crusader city, the city walls, the ruined citadel surrounded by the sea, and remains of the cathedral and a second church. Herod's Caesarea grew rapidly, in time becoming the largest city in Judaea with an estimated population of 125,000 over an urban area of {{convert|3.7|km2}}.{{fact|date=December 2024}} According to Josephus, Caesarea was the scene in 26 CE of a major act of civil disobedience to protest against Pilate's order to plant eagle standards on the [[Temple Mount]] of [[Jerusalem]].<ref>Antiquities of the Jews XVII:III:1,2,3. The Jewish War II:IX:3.</ref>

Emperor [[Vespasian]] raised its status to that of a ''[[Colonia (Roman)|Colonia]]'', with the name ''Colonia Prima Flavia Augusta Caesarea''. According to Josephus, the outbreak of the [[First Jewish–Roman War|Jewish revolt]] of 66 CE was provoked by Greeks of a certain merchant house in Caesarea sacrificing birds in front of a local synagogue.<ref>{{Cite Josephus|1J.|BJ|2.14.5|text=wars|bookno=2|chap=14|sec=5|pace=1|per=1|show-translator=no|show-source=no|abbr=yes}}</ref> In 70 CE, after the Jewish revolt was suppressed, games were held there to celebrate the victory of [[Titus]]. Many Jewish captives were brought to Caesarea; Kasher claims that 2,500 captives were "slaughtered in [[Gladiator|gladiatorial]] games".<ref>Kasher, Aryeh (1990) ''Jews and Hellenistic Cities in Eretz-Israel: Relations of the Jews in Eretz-Israel with the Hellenistic Cities During the Second Temple Period (332 BCE-70CE)'', [[Mohr Siebeck]]; {{ISBN|3-16-145241-0}}, pg. 311</ref>

In the aftermath of the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]] Caesarea was changed to ''[[Syria Palaestina]]'' in 135.<ref>Shimon Applebaum (1989) ''Judaea in Hellenistic and Roman Times: Historical and Archaeological Essays'', Brill Archive; {{ISBN|90-04-08821-0}}, pg. 123</ref> Caesarea was one of four Roman colonies for veteran Roman soldiers in the Syria-Phoenicia region.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Butcher |first1= Kevin |title= Roman Syria and the Near East |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=YJPn3-rRjC0C |year= 2003 |publisher= Getty Publications |isbn=978-08-92-36715-3}} p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=YJPn3-rRjC0C&pg=PA230 230]</ref> Caesarea is mentioned in the 3rd-century [[Mosaic of Rehob]], with respect to its non-Jewish population.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}

=====Early Christian centre=====
{{Main|Theological Library of Caesarea Maritima}}
{{See also|Early centers of Christianity#Caesarea|Caesarea in Palaestina (diocese)}}
[[File:Caesarea maritima (DerHexer) 2011-08-02 098.jpg|thumb|The ancient city looking south]]

According to the [[Acts of the Apostles]], Caesarea was first introduced to Christianity by [[Philip the Deacon]],<ref>{{bibleverse||Acts|8:40|ESV}}</ref> who later had a house there in which he gave hospitality to [[Paul the Apostle]].<ref>{{bibleverse||Acts|21:8–10|ESV}}</ref> It was there that [[Saint Peter|Peter the Apostle]] baptized [[Cornelius the Centurion]] and his household, the first time Christian [[baptism]] was conferred on [[Gentile|Gentiles]].<ref>{{bibleverse||Acts|10:1-11:18|ESV}}</ref> When newly converted Paul was in danger in Jerusalem, the Christians there accompanied him to Caesarea and sent him off to his native [[Tarsus, Mersin#Rome|Tarsus]].<ref>{{bibleverse||Acts|9:30|ESV}}</ref> He visited Caesarea between his second and third missionary journeys.<ref>{{bibleverse-nb||Acts|18:22|ESV}}</ref> Paul was a prisoner in Caesarea for two years before being sent to Rome.<ref>Acts 23:23, 25:1-13</ref>

In the [[Christianity in the 3rd century |3rd century]], [[Origen]] wrote his ''[[Hexapla]]'' and other exegetical and theological works while living in Caesarea. The [[Nicene Creed]] may have originated in Caesarea. The [[Apostolic Constitutions]] says that the first [[Caesarea in Palaestina (diocese)|Bishop of Caesarea]] was [[Zacchaeus]] the Publican, followed by Cornelius (possibly Cornelius the Centurion) and Theophilus (possibly the recipient of the [[Gospel of Luke]]).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/07157.htm|title=CHURCH FATHERS: Apostolic Constitutions, Book VII|website=www.newadvent.org}}</ref> The first bishops considered historically attested are those mentioned by the early church historian [[Eusebius]] of Caesarea, who was the bishop of the see in the 4th century. He speaks of [[Theophilus, bishop of Caesarea|Theophilus]] who was bishop in the 10th year of [[Commodus]] (c. 189),<ref>''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Church History]]'' V,22</ref> of Theoctistus (216–258), Domnus, and Theotecnus,<ref>''Church History'' VII,14</ref> and [[Agapius of Caesarea|Agapius]]. Among the participants in the [[Synod of Ancyra]] in 314 was the bishop of Caesarea named Agricolaus, who may have been the immediate predecessor of Eusebius, who does not mention him, or who may have been bishop of a different Caesarea. The immediate successors of Eusebius were [[Acacius of Caesarea |Acacius]] (340–366) and [[Gelasius of Caesarea| Gelasius]] (367–372, 380–395). The latter was ousted by the semi-[[Arianism|Arian]] Euzoius between 373 and 379. French historian [[Michel Le Quien]] gives much information about all of these and about later bishops of Caesarea.<ref>{{Oriens christianus|volume=3|at= coll. 529-574, 1285-1290}}</ref> The [[Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem]] has a metropolitan see in Caesarea. The Latin [[Caesarea in Palaestina (diocese)|archbishopric of Caesarea in Palestina]] was made a Roman Catholic [[titular see]] in 1432.<ref name="AP">''Annuario Pontificio 2013''. Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013, p. 867. {{ISBN|978-88-209-9070-1}}.</ref> The [[Melkite Catholic Church]] considers Caesarea a titular see.<ref name="AP" />

Through Origen and especially the scholarly presbyter [[Pamphilus of Caesarea]], the theological school of Caesarea gained a reputation for having the most extensive [[Theological Library of Caesarea Maritima|ecclesiastical library]] of the time, containing more than 30,000 manuscripts: [[Gregory of Nazianzus|Gregory Nazianzus]], [[Basil of Caesarea|Basil the Great]], [[Jerome]] and others came to study there. The [[Caesarean text-type]] is recognized by scholars as one of the earliest [[New Testament]] types. The collections of the library suffered during [[Diocletianic Persecution|the persecutions]] under Emperor [[Diocletian]] but were repaired subsequently by bishops of Caesarea.<ref>Jerome, "Epistles" xxxiv</ref> The library is mentioned as late as 6th-century manuscripts, but it may not have survived the capture of Caesarea by the Muslim armies in 640.<ref>{{cite book|last=Swete|first=Henry Barclay|title=Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek, pp 74-75}}</ref>

===Middle Ages===

====Byzantine period====
During the Byzantine period, Caesarea became the capital of the province of [[Palaestina Prima]] in 390. Caesarea was also the metropolitan see, with ecclesiastical jurisdiction over Jerusalem, when rebuilt after its destruction in 70. In 451, however, the [[Council of Chalcedon]] established Jerusalem as a [[patriarchate]], with Caesarea as the first of its three subordinate metropolitan sees. Caesarea remained the provincial capital throughout the 5th and 6th centuries. It fell to [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanid]] Persia in the [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628]], [[Siege of Caesarea Maritima (614)|in 614]], and was re-conquered by Byzantium in 625.

====Early Muslim period====
[[File:Umm ar-Rasas Church of St. Stephen Caesarea 2788.jpg|thumb|right|Depiction of Caesarea in the [[Umm ar-Rasas mosaics]], circa 8th century]]
[[File:11th Century (Fatimid Period) jewelry from Caesarea in the Muslims and Crusaders Exhibit.jpg|200px|thumb|right|11th century ([[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] period) jewelry from Caesarea]]
[[File:Sacro_Catino_Graal.jpg|200px|thumb|right|The ''Sacro Catino'', a hexagonal bowl made from green Egyptian glass, c. 9&nbsp;cm high and 33&nbsp;cm across, possibly brought from Caesarea to Genoa by [[Guglielmo Embriaco]] in 1101. Described as an object with miraculous properties in 12th-century literature, including the ''Historia'' of [[William of Tyre]], it was only identified as the [[Holy Grail#Relics|Holy Grail]] in the 13th century by [[Jacobus de Voragine]]. Seized and taken to Paris by Napoleon in 1805, it was damaged when it was returned to Genoa in 1816, which served to prove that it was made of glass, not emerald.<ref name=Barber>{{cite book |last= Barber |first= Richard |author-link= Richard Barber |title= The Holy Grail: Imagination and Belief |page= 168 |publisher= Harvard University Press |year= 2004 |isbn= 978-0-674-01390-2 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=_lLbiZCNhlAC&pg=PA168 |access-date=27 September 2015}}</ref><ref name=Mariti>{{cite book |author=Abbé Mariti |author-link=:it:Giovanni Mariti |title= Travels through Cyprus, Syria, and Palestine: with a General History of the Levant |pages= 399–400 |location= Dublin |volume= I |year= 1792 |publisher=Printed for P. Byrne |url= https://archive.org/stream/travelsthroughc00marigoog#page/n429/mode/1up |access-date=9 April 2012}}</ref><ref name=Marica>{{cite book |last= Marica |first= Patrizia |title= Museo del Tesoro, San Lorenzo |pages= 7–12 |publisher= sagep |location= Genoa, Italy |year= 2000 |isbn= 9788870589795 }}</ref><ref name=Wood>{{cite book |last= Wood |first= Juliette |title= The Holy Grail: History and Legend |page= 85 |edition= 2 |publisher= University of Wales Press |year= 2012 |isbn= 9780708326268 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=vVquBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT85 |access-date=18 September 2016}}</ref>]]

Caesarea was lost for good by the Byzantines to the [[Muslim conquest of the Levant|Muslim conquest]] in 640. Archaeological excavations discovered a [[destruction layer]] connected to the Muslim conquest of the city.<ref name=Hansen/> Some newer research posits that there was no destruction caused by the Persians in 614 and Muslim Arabs in 640, but rather a gradual economic decline accompanied by the Christian aristocracy fleeing from the city.<ref name=Holum1992>{{cite journal |last= Holum |first= Kenneth G. |title=  Archaeological Evidence for the Fall of Byzantine Caesarea |journal=[[BASOR]] |publisher= The University of Chicago Press |volume= 286 |date= May 1992 |issue= 286 |pages= 73–85 |doi= 10.2307/1357119 |jstor= 1357119 |s2cid= 163306127 |url= https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.2307/1357119?journalCode=basor |access-date=22 November 2020}}</ref>

According to 9th-century Muslim historian [[al-Baladhuri]], the fall of the city was the result of the betrayal of a certain Yusef, who conducted a party of troops of [[Muawiyah I|Muawiyah]] into the city.<ref name=Meyers380>{{cite book |last= Meyers |first= Eric M. |author-link=Eric M. Meyers |title= Galilee Through the Centuries |chapter= "The Fall of Caesarea Maritima" |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=znYoChYVIrcC |year= 1999 |publisher= Eisenbrauns |isbn= 9781575060408}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=znYoChYVIrcC&pg=PA380 380ff.]</ref> The city appears to have been partially destroyed upon its conquest. The 7th-century Coptic bishop [[John of Nikiû]], claims there were "horrors committed in the city of Caesarea in Palestine", while al-Baladhuri merely states that Kaisariyyah/Cæsarea was "reduced",<ref>Meyers, 1999, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=znYoChYVIrcC&pg=PA381 381]. ([https://archive.org/details/originsofislamic00balarich The origins of the Islamic state] trans. [[Philip Khuri Hitti]], 1916). The archaeological stratum representing the destruction is analyzed in Cherie Joyce Lentzen, ''The Byzantine/Islamic Occupation of Caesarea Maritima as Evidenced Through the Pottery'' (Drew University 1983), noted by Meyer 1999:381 note 23. See also: Al-Baladhuri, 1916, pp. [https://archive.org/stream/originsofislamic00balarich#page/216/mode/1up 216]-219.</ref> mentioning it as one of ten towns in [[Jund Filastin]] (military district of Palestine) conquered by the Muslim [[Rashidun army]] under [['Amr ibn al-'As]]'s leadership during the 630s.<ref>The conquered towns included "[[Gaza City|Ghazzah]] (Gaza), [[Sebastia, Nablus|Sabastiyah]] (Samaria), [[Nabulus]] (Shechem), Cæsarea, [[Lod|Ludd]] (Lydda), [[Yibna|Yubna]], [[Imwas|Amwas]] (Emmaus), [[Jaffa|Yafa]] (Joppa), [[Rafah]], and [[Bayt Jibrin]]. (Bil. 138), quoted in Le Strange, 1890, [https://archive.org/stream/palestineundermo00lestuoft#page/28/mode/1up p.28]</ref><ref>Al-Baladhuri, 1916, pp. [https://archive.org/stream/originsofislamic00balarich#page/216/mode/1up 216]-219</ref><ref>Meyers, 1999, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=znYoChYVIrcC&pg=PA380 380]</ref> After the fall of Caesarea, 4,000 "heads" (captives), men, women and children, were sent to Caliph [[Umar]] in Medina, where they were gathered and inspected on the Jurd Plain, a plain commonly used to assemble the troops of Medina before battle, with room for thousands of people, before they were distributed as war booty to [[slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate]].<ref>Dynamics in the History of Religions Between Asia and Europe: Encounters, Notions, and Comparative Perspectives. (2012). Nederländerna: Brill. p. 180-181</ref>

The former Palaestina Prima became ''Jund Filastin'', with the capital first at [[Lod|Ludd]] and then at [[Ramla]]. The city likely remained inhabited for some time under Arab rule, during the 7th and 8th centuries, albeit with much reduced population. Archaeological evidence shows a clear destruction layer identified with the conquest of 640, followed by some evidence of renewed settlement in the early [[Umayyad Caliphate]].<ref name="Hansen">Archaeological literature in the 1970s seemed to favour complete abandonment in the 7th century, but this view has been corrected with further excavations in the 1980s. See {{cite book | editor1 = Inge Lyse Hansen | editor2 = Chris Wickham | date = 2000 | title = The Long Eighth Century | publisher = BRILL | pages = 292– | isbn = 978-90-04-11723-5 | oclc = 1013307862 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=F6FbuKU3ZAYC&pg=PA292}}, footnote 49.</ref> The area was farmed from the Rashidun Caliphate through to the [[First Crusade]].<ref name="ZSERP">Safrai, 1994, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8dmKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA374 374]</ref>

By the 11th century, it appears that the town had once again been developed into a fortified city. Writing in 1047, [[Nasir Khusraw]] describes it as "a fine city, with running waters, and palm-gardens, and orange and citron trees. Its walls are strong, and it has an iron gate. There are fountains that gush out within the city".<ref name="leStrange474">Le Strange, Guy, 1890, p. [https://archive.org/stream/palestineundermo00lestuoft#page/474/mode/1up 474]</ref><ref name="Pringle93" /> This is in agreement with [[William of Tyre]]'s description of the Crusaders' siege in 1101, mentioning catapults and siege engines used against the city fortifications.<ref>William of Tyre, ''Historia'' 10.15.</ref> Nasir Khusraw notes a "beautiful [[Friday mosque]]" in Caesarea, "so situated that in its court you may sit and enjoy the view of all that is passing on the sea."<ref name="leStrange474" /> This was converted into the church of St. Peter in Crusader times. A wall which may belong to this building has been identified in modern times.<ref name="Pringle93">{{cite book | author1 = Denys Pringle | author2 = Professor Denys Pringle | date = 1993 | title = The Churches of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem: A Corpus: Volume 1, A-K (excluding Acre and Jerusalem) | publisher = Cambridge University Press | pages = 170– | isbn = 978-0-521-39036-1 | oclc = 1008255454 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BgQ6AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA170}}</ref><ref name="Petersen129ff" />

====Crusader and Ayyubid period====
[[File:Crusader Walls and Moat in Caesarea.jpg|thumb|250px|Remnants of the walls and moat built by [[Louis IX of France]] in 1251]]
[[File:Crusader_Church_of_Caesarea_Maritima_P1080520.JPG|thumb|The ruins of a side apse and the main apse of St. Peter's Cathedral in Caesarea]]

Caesarea was taken by [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin I]] in the wake of the [[First Crusade]], in 1101. Baldwin sent a message to [[emir]] of Caesarea, demanding him to surrender the city or face a siege, but the Muslims refused. On May 2, 1101, Baldwin began sieging the city with [[trebuchet]]s. After 15 days of resistance, the Crusader army broke through the defenses. Like in [[Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|Jerusalem in 1099]], the Crusaders proceeded to slaughter a portion of the male populace, enslave the women and children, and loot the city. [[William of Tyre]] describes the use of catapults and siege towers, and states that the city was taken in an assault after 15 days of siege and given over to looting and pillaging. [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriac Orthodox]] [[List of Syriac Patriarchs of Antioch from 512 to 1783|patriarch]] [[Michael the Syrian]] (born ca. 1126) records that the city was "devastated upon its capture".<ref>Meyers (1999:381).</ref>

Baldwin spared the emir and [[Judge (Islamic law)|qadi]] for a hefty ransom. Baldwin appointed a cleric veteran of the First Crusade, also named Baldwin, as the Latin archbishop of Caesarea.<ref>''The Crusades'' by [[Thomas Asbridge]], pg. 123-124.</ref> The city was under [[Crusader states|Crusader control]] between 1101 and 1187 and again between 1191 and 1265.<ref>Pringle, 1997, pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=-_NbE5obqRMC&pg=PA43 43]-45</ref> William of Tyre mentions the discovery of a "vessel of the most green colour, in the shape of a serving dish" (''vas coloris viridissimi, in modum parapsidis formatum'') which the [[Republic of Genoa|Genuese]] thought to be made of [[emerald]], and accepted as their share of the spoils. This refers to the hexagonal bowl known as the ''[[Sacro Catino]]'' in Italian, which was brought to Genoa by [[Guglielmo Embriaco]] and was later identified as the [[Holy Chalice]].<ref>Marica, Patrizia, ''Museo del Tesoro'' Genoa, Italy (2007), 7&ndash;12.

The ''Sacro Catino'' is a hexagonal bowl made from Roma-era green glass, some 9&nbsp;cm high and 33&nbsp;cm across. It was seized and taken to Paris by Napoleon in 1805, and it was damaged when it was returned to Genoa in 1816. The object was not immediately identified as the Holy Grail. William of Tyre states that was still claimed to be made of emerald by the Genoese in his day, some 70 years later, the implication being that emerald was thought to have miraculous properties of their own in [[Lapidary (text)|medieval lore]] (''Unde et usque hodie transeuntibus per eos magnatibus, vas idem quasi pro miraculo solent ostendere, persuadentes quod vere sit, id quod color esse indicat, smaragdus.'') The first explicit claim identifying the bowl with the Holy Grail (the vessel used in the Last Supper) is found in the ''Chronicon'' by [[Jacobus de Voragine]], written in the 1290s. Juliette Wood, [https://books.google.com/books?id=vVquBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT85 The Holy Grail: History and Legend] (2012).</ref> Caesarea was incorporated as a [[Lordship of Caesarea|lordship (dominion)]] within the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]], and the Latin [[Caesarea in Palaestina (diocese)|See of Caesarea]] was established, with ten archbishops listed for the period 1101&ndash;1266 (treated as [[titular see]] from 1432&ndash;1967). Archbishop [[Patriarch Heraclius of Jerusalem|Heraclius]] attended the [[Third Council of the Lateran|Third Lateran Council]] in 1179.

[[Saladin]] recaptured the city in 1187, but it was once again captured by the Crusaders during the [[Third Crusade]] in 1191. In 1251 during the [[Seventh Crusade]], [[Louis IX of France]] fortified the city, ordering the construction of high walls (parts of which are still standing) and a deep moat.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Caesarea Maritima - Madain Project (en) |url=https://madainproject.com/caesarea_maritima |access-date=2023-04-24 |website=madainproject.com}}</ref>

In 1265 the city was reconquered by the [[Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluk]] armies of Sultan [[Baibars]], who ordered his troops to scale the walls in several places simultaneously, enabling them to penetrate the city.<ref name="Holum2014">Kenneth G. Holum, "The Archaeology of Caesarea Maritima", in Bart Wagemakers, ed., ''Archaeology in the 'Land of Tells and Ruins': A History of Excavations in the Holy Land Inspired by the Photographs and Accounts of Leo Boer'' (Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2014), 182-201.

{{ISBN|9781782972457}}</ref> Baibars destroyed the fortified city completely to prevent its re-emergence as a Crusader stronghold, in line with the Mamluk practice in other former Crusader coastal cities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=D. Sivan|display-authors=etal|date=11 February 2004|title=Ancient coastal wells of Caesarea Maritima, Israel, an indicator for relative sea level changes during the last 2000 years|url=http://mapi.gov.il/research/presentations/documents/sealevel/sivan_et_al_2004_epsl.pdf|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |volume=222|issue=1|publisher=Elsevier|page=318|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2004.02.007|bibcode=2004E&PSL.222..315S}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mfa.gov.il/mfa/israelexperience/history/pages/caesarea-%20from%20roman%20city%20to%20crusader%20fortress.aspx|title=Caesarea- from Roman City to Crusader Fortress|website=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs|access-date=2019-12-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Möhring |first=Hannes |date=2009 |title=Die muslimische Strategie der Schleifung fränkischer Festungen und Städte in der Levante |url= |journal=Burgen und Schlösser - Zeitschrift für Burgenforschung und Denkmalpflege |language=de |volume=50 |issue=4 |page=216 |doi=10.11588/BUS.2009.4.48565 |doi-access=free}}</ref> During the Mamluk period, the ruins of ancient Caesarea and of the Crusader fortified town lay uninhabited.<ref name="Holum2014" /> [[Al-Dimashqi (geographer)|Al-Dimashqi]], writing around 1300, notes that Kaisariyyah belonged to the Kingdom of Ghazza (Gaza).

===Modern period===

====Ottoman Empire====
[[File:Roman and Medieval ruins in Kaisarieh from the 1871-77 Palestine Exploration Fund Survey of Palestine.jpg|thumb|Roman and medieval ruins in "Kaisarieh", drawn for the 1871-77 [[PEF Survey of Palestine]]]]Caesarea became part of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1516, along with the rest of the Levant, and remained under Ottoman rule for four centuries. In 1664, a settlement is mentioned consisting of 100 [[Moroccan people|Moroccan]] families and 7 to 8 Jewish ones.<ref>Roger, 1664; cited in Ringel 1975, 174; cited in Petersen, 2001, p.129</ref> In the 18th century it again declined.<ref>Petersen, 2001, p. [https://www.academia.edu/21619490/Gazetteer_3._A-C 129]</ref> In 1806, the German explorer [[Ulrich Jasper Seetzen]] saw "Káisserérie" as a ruin occupied by some poor fishermen and their families.<ref>Seetzen, 1854, vol 2, pp. [https://archive.org/stream/ulrichjaspersee00seetgoog#page/n601/mode/1up 72]–73. Alt: [https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10468158?page=80 Seetzen, Ulrich Jasper: Ulrich Jasper Seetzen's Reisen durch Syrien. p. 80]</ref>

In 1870, French explorer [[Victor Guérin]] visited the site.<ref>Guérin, 1875, pp. [https://archive.org/stream/descriptiongogr04gugoog#page/n346/mode/1up 321]–339</ref> The village of Qisarya ({{langx|ar|قيسارية}}) was allocated in 1880 to [[Bushnak]] ([[Bosniak]]) immigrants from [[Bosnia vilayet|Bosnia]].<ref>Oliphant, 1887, p. [https://archive.org/stream/haifaorlifeinmod00olipuoft#page/182/mode/1up &nbsp;182]</ref> The Bosniaks had emigrated to the area after [[Ottoman Bosnia]] was [[Treaty of Berlin (1878)|occupied]] by [[Austria-Hungary]] in 1878. According to [[historian]] [[Roy Marom]],<blockquote>Fifty families of Bosnian refugees, mostly from [[Mostar]], the main urban center of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], settled among the ruins of Caesarea, renaming it with the Arabic name of Qisarya. Using the ancient masonry found on site, the settlers constructed a modern town with spacious accommodations and broad intersecting streets, according to traditional Bosnian town-plans. The town had two mosques, a [[caravanserai]], a [[marketplace]], a residence for the ''mudir'', a harbor and [[Customs|custom]] offices. Qisarya attracted high-ranking Bosnian functionaries who established estates near Qisarya. The town was declared the seat of a ''mudirieh'' (a minor administrative division).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marom |first=Roy |date=2023-03-09 |title=Hadera: transnational migrations from Eastern Europe to Ottoman Palestine and the glocal origins of the Zionist-Arab conflict |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00263206.2023.2183499 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=250–270 |doi=10.1080/00263206.2023.2183499 |s2cid=257443159 |issn=0026-3206}}</ref></blockquote>A population list from about 1887 showed that Caesarea had 670 inhabitants, in addition to 265 Muslim inhabitants, who were noted as "Bosniaks".<ref>Schumacher, 1888, p. [https://archive.org/stream/quarterlystateme19pale#page/n206/mode/1up  181]</ref>

Petersen, visiting the place in 1992, noted that the 19th-century houses were built in blocks, generally one story high, with the exception of the house of the governor. Some houses on the western side of the village, near the sea, had survived. There were several mosques in the village in the 19th century, but only one ("The Bosnian mosque") has survived. This mosque, located at the southern end of the city, next to the harbour, is described as a simple stone building with a red-tiled roof and a cylindrical minaret.<ref name=Petersen129ff>Petersen, 2001, pp. [https://www.academia.edu/21619490/Gazetteer_3._A-C  129]-130</ref>

====British Mandate of Palestine====
{{Infobox settlement
| name                    = Qisarya
| native_name             = قيسارية
| native_name_lang        = ar
| other_name              = Qisarya
| settlement_type         = Village
<!-- images, nickname, motto -->
| image_skyline           = Caesarea Maritima BW 2010-09-23 09-54-00.JPG 
| imagesize               = 200
| image_caption           = The Bosnian Mosque at Qisarya
<!-- maps and coordinates -->
| pushpin_mapsize         = 200
| grid_name               = [[Palestine grid|Palestine&nbsp;grid]]
| grid_position           = 140/212
<!-- location -->
| subdivision_type        = [[Geopolitical entity]]
| subdivision_name        = [[Mandatory Palestine]]
| subdivision_type1       = [[Districts of Mandatory Palestine|Subdistrict]]
| subdivision_name1       = [[Haifa Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Haifa]]
<!-- established -->
| established_title1      = Date of depopulation
| established_date1       = February 1948<ref>Morris, 2004, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PR18 xviii], village #177. Also gives the cause for depopulation</ref>
| established_title2      = Repopulated dates
<!-- area -->
| area_footnotes          = <ref name="p.49"/>
| unit_pref               = dunam
| area_total_dunam        = 31,786
<!-- population -->
| population_as_of        = 1945
| population_total        = 960
| population_footnotes = <ref name="p.49">Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. ''Village Statistics, April, 1945.'' Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. [http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20I/Haifa/Page-049.jpg 49]</ref><ref name=1945p14/>
<!-- blank fields (section 1) -->
| blank_name_sec1         = Cause(s) of depopulation
| blank_info_sec1         = Expulsion by [[Yishuv]] forces
| blank3_name_sec1        = Current Localities
| blank3_info_sec1        = Caesarea
}}
 
In the [[1922 census of Palestine]], conducted by the [[Mandate for Palestine|British Mandate]] authorities, Caesarea had a population of 346; 288 Muslims, 32 Christians and 26 Jews,<ref>Barron, 1923, Table XI, Sub-district of Haifa, p. [https://archive.org/stream/PalestineCensus1922/Palestine%20Census%20%281922%29#page/n36/mode/1up 34]</ref> where the Christians were 6 Orthodox, 3 Syrian Orthodox, 3 Roman Catholics, 4 [[Melkite]]s, 2 Syrian Catholics and 14 [[Maronite]].<ref>Barron, 1923, Table XVI, p. [https://archive.org/stream/PalestineCensus1922/Palestine%20Census%20%281922%29#page/n51/mode/1up 49]</ref> The population had increased in the [[1931 census of Palestine|1931 census]] to 706; 19 Christians, 4 Druse and 683 Muslims, in 143 houses.<ref>Mills, 1932, p. [https://archive.org/details/CensusOfPalestine1931.PopulationOfVillagesTownsAndAdministrativeAreas 95]</ref>

A Jewish settlement, '''Kibbutz Sdot Yam''', was established {{convert|1|km}} south of the Muslim town in 1940. The Muslim village declined in economic importance and many of Qisarya's Muslim inhabitants left in the mid-1940s, when the British extended the [[Palestine Railways]] which bypassed the shallow-draft port. Qisarya had a population of 960 in [[Village Statistics, 1945|1945 statistics]],<ref name="1945p14" /> with Qisarya's population composition 930 Muslims and 30 Christians in 1945.<ref name="p.49" /><ref name="1945p14">Department of Statistics, 1945, p.[http://cs.anu.edu.au/~bdm/yabber/census/VSpages/VS1945_p14.jpg 14]</ref> In 1944/45 a total of 18 [[dunam|dunum]]s of Muslim village land was used for citrus and bananas, 1,020 dunums were used for cereals, while 108 dunums were irrigated or used for orchards,<ref>Khalidi, 1992, p. 183</ref><ref>Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. ''Village Statistics, April, 1945.'' Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. [http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20II/Haifa/Page-091.jpg 91]</ref> while 111 dunams were built-up (urban) land.<ref>Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. ''Village Statistics, April, 1945.'' Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. [http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20III/Haifa/Page-141.jpg 141]</ref>

<gallery>
File:קיסריה - מראה-JNF025733.jpeg|Caesarea 1947
File:קיסריה - עתיקות.-JNF038592.jpeg|Caesarea 1947
File:Caesarea 1942.jpg|Caesarea 1942 1:20,000
File:Caesarea 1945.jpg|Caesarea 1945 1:250,000
</gallery>

====1947–present====
The [[1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine|civil war in Mandatory Palestine]] began on 30 November 1947. In December 1947 a village notable, Tawfiq Kadkuda, approached local Jews in an effort to establish a non-belligerency agreement.<ref>Morris, 2004, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA92 92]</ref> The 31 January 1948 [[Lehi (militant group)|Lehi]] attack on a bus leaving Qisarya, which killed two and injured six people, precipitated an evacuation of most of the population, who fled to nearby [[al-Tantura]].<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite book | editor = Charles Tripp | author1 = Research Fellow Truman Institute Benny Morris | author2 = Benny Morris | author3 = Morris Benny | date = 2004 | title = The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited | publisher = Cambridge University Press | page = 130 | isbn = 978-0-521-00967-6 | oclc = 1025810122 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA130}}</ref> The [[Haganah]] then occupied the village because the land was owned by the [[Palestine Jewish Colonization Association]] and, fearing that the British would force them to leave, decided to demolish the houses.<ref name=autogenerated1 /><ref name=Morris129130/> This was done on 19–20 February, after the remaining residents were expelled and the houses were looted.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> According to Israeli historian [[Benny Morris]], the expulsion of the population had more to do with illegal Jewish immigration than the ongoing civil war.<ref>Morris, 2008, pp. 94–95.</ref> In the same month the 'Arab al Sufsafi and Saidun [[Bedouin]], who inhabited the dunes between Qisarya and [[Pardes Hanna-Karkur|Pardes]] left the area.<ref>{{cite book | editor = Charles Tripp | author1 = Research Fellow Truman Institute Benny Morris | author2 = Benny Morris | author3 = Morris Benny | date = 2004 | title = The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited | publisher = Cambridge University Press | pages = 129– | isbn = 978-0-521-00967-6 | oclc = 1025810122 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA129}}</ref>

In 1952, the Jewish town of [[Caesarea (modern town)|Caesarea]] was established {{convert|1|-|2|km}} to the north of the ruins of the old city, which in 2011 were incorporated into the newly created Caesarea [[National parks and nature reserves of Israel|National Park]].

In 1992, Palestinian historian [[Walid Khalidi]] described the village remains: "Most of the houses have been demolished. The site has been excavated in recent years, largely by Italian, American, and Israeli teams, and turned into a tourist area. Most of the few remaining houses are now restaurants, and the village mosque has been converted into a bar."<ref>Khalidi, 1992, p.184</ref> Since 2000, the site of Caesarea is included in the "Tentative List of World Heritage Places" of the [[UNESCO]].<ref name="UNESCO" />