Editing Córdoba, Spain (section)

==History==
{{see also|Timeline of Córdoba, Spain}}

===Prehistory, antiquity and Roman foundation of the city===
[[File:Reconstrucción templo romano de Córdoba.jpg|thumb|Reconstruction of the [[Roman temple of Córdoba]]|left]]
The first traces of human presence in the area are remains of a [[Neanderthal]] dating to {{circa|42,000}} to 35,000 BC.<ref>{{cite web |title=Neanderthals Died Out Earlier Than Thought |website=[[Live Science]] |date=4 February 2013 |url=http://www.livescience.com/26831-neanderthals-died-earlier.html |access-date=9 June 2013 |archive-date=2 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130702233946/http://www.livescience.com/26831-neanderthals-died-earlier.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Tartessos|Pre-urban settlements]] around the mouth of the Guadalquivir are known to have existed from the 8th century BC. The population gradually learned copper and silver metallurgy.{{citation needed|date = April 2016}} The first historical mention of a settlement dates to the [[ancient Carthage|Carthaginian]] expansion across the Guadalquivir.{{citation needed|date = April 2016}} Córdoba was conquered by the [[ancient Rome|Romans]] in 206 BC.{{citation needed|date = April 2016}}

In 169 BC, [[Roman consul]] [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus (consul 166 BC)|Marcus Claudius Marcellus]], the grandson of [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus]], who had governed both [[Hispania Ulterior]] and [[Hispania Citerior]] respectively, founded a newer settlement alongside the pre-existing one.<ref name="HornblowerSpawforth2012">{{cite book |first1=Simon J. |last1=Keay |editor-first1=Simon |editor-last1=Hornblower |editor-first2=Antony |editor-last2=Spawforth |editor-first3=Esther |editor-last3=Eidinow |title=The Oxford Classical Dictionary |chapter=Corduba |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVWcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA374 |date=29 March 2012 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-954556-8 |page=374 |access-date=3 December 2020 |archive-date=25 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925032638/https://books.google.com/books?id=bVWcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA374#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The date is contested; it could have been founded in 152 BC. Between 143 and 141 BC the town was besieged by [[Viriatus]]. A [[Forum (Roman)|forum]] is known to have existed in the city in 113 BC.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Vaquerizo, D. |author2=Murillo, J. |year=2016 |title=The suburbs of Cordoba, Spain |journal=Estoa |volume=5 |issue=9 |pages=37–60, esp. p. 40 |doi=10.18537/est.v005.n009.04 |url=https://publicaciones.ucuenca.edu.ec/ojs/index.php/estoa/article/view/1021/889 |access-date=17 December 2019 |doi-access=free |hdl=10396/15641 |hdl-access=free |archive-date=4 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804212145/https://publicaciones.ucuenca.edu.ec/ojs/index.php/estoa/article/view/1021/889 |url-status=live }}</ref> The famous [[Cordoba Treasure]], with mixed local and Roman artistic traditions, was buried in the city at this time; it is now in the [[British Museum]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://culturalinstitute.britishmuseum.org/asset-viewer/cordoba-treasure/_QF0AsYh3vFr1Q?hl=en |title=Cordoba Treasure |website=The British Museum |access-date=20 August 2017 |archive-date=25 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925032641/https://artsandculture.google.com/partner/the-british-museum |url-status=live }}</ref>

Corduba became a colonia with the name ''Colonia Patricia''<ref name="Pollini2012">{{cite book |first=John |last=Pollini |title=From Republic to Empire: Rhetoric, Religion, and Power in the Visual Culture of Ancient Rome |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KJDV1USNxQ0C&pg=PA531 |date=20 November 2012 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=978-0-8061-8816-4 |page=531 |access-date=3 December 2020 |archive-date=25 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925032638/https://books.google.com/books?id=KJDV1USNxQ0C&pg=PA531#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> between 46 and 45 BC. It was sacked by [[Julius Caesar]] in 45 because of its fealty to [[Pompey]] and resettled with veteran soldiers by [[Augustus]]. It became the capital of [[Baetica]], with a forum and numerous temples, and was the main center of Roman intellectual life in ''Hispania Ulterior''.<ref name="Isaksen2008">{{cite journal |last1=Isaksen |first1=Leif |title=The application of network analysis to ancient transport geography: A case study of Roman Baetica |journal=Digital Medievalist |date=21 March 2008 |volume=4 |doi=10.16995/dm.20 |language=en |issn=1715-0736 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="HornblowerSpawforth2012" /> The Roman philosopher [[Seneca the Younger]], his father, the orator [[Seneca the Elder]], and his nephew, the poet [[Marcus Annaeus Lucanus|Lucan]] came from Roman Córdoba.<ref name="HornblowerSpawforth201291">{{cite book |first1=Simon J. |last1=Keay |editor-first1=Simon |editor-last1=Hornblower |editor-first2=Antony |editor-last2=Spawforth |editor-first3=Esther |editor-last3=Eidinow |title=The Oxford Classical Dictionary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVWcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA91 |date=29 March 2012 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-954556-8 |pages=91–92 |access-date=3 December 2020 |archive-date=25 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925032638/https://books.google.com/books?id=bVWcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA91#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the late Roman period, [[Hosius of Corduba]] or "Bishop Ossius" was the dominant figure of the [[Latin Church]] throughout the earlier 4th century.<ref name="HornblowerSpawforth2012" /> Later, Corduba occupied an important place in the ''[[Spania|Provincia Hispaniae]]'' of the [[Byzantine Empire]] (552–572); the Visigoths conquered it in the late 6th century.<ref name="Roth1994">{{cite book |first=Norman |last=Roth |title=Jews, Visigoths, and Muslims in Medieval Spain: Cooperation and Conflict |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bHh5plYLhHEC&pg=PA7 |year=1994 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=90-04-09971-9 |page=7 |access-date=3 December 2020 |archive-date=25 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925032750/https://books.google.com/books?id=bHh5plYLhHEC&pg=PA7#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Doak2009">{{cite book |first=Robin S. |last=Doak |title=Empire of the Islamic World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ptOrLFoRnM8C&pg=PA70 |year=2009 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-0317-4 |page=70 |access-date=3 December 2020 |archive-date=25 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925032750/https://books.google.com/books?id=ptOrLFoRnM8C&pg=PA70#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Umayyad rule===
{{main|Umayyad state of Córdoba}}
Córdoba was captured by the Muslims in 711 or 712.<ref name="Collins1995">{{cite book |first=Roger |last=Collins |title=The Arab Conquest of Spain: 710 – 797 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SPQcHwAACAAJ |date=17 February 1995 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-631-19405-7 |pages=42–43 |access-date=3 December 2020 |archive-date=25 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925032639/https://books.google.com/books?id=SPQcHwAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Unlike other Iberian towns, no capitulation was signed and the position was taken by storm. Córdoba was in turn governed by direct Arab rule. The new Umayyad commanders established themselves within the city and in 716 it became the provincial capital,<ref name="Collins1995" /> subordinate to the [[Caliphate of Damascus]], replacing [[Seville]]. In Arabic it was known as {{lang|ar|قرطبة}} (Qurṭuba).

The centre of the Roman and Visigothic cities became the walled [[Medina quarter|''medina'']]. Over time, as many as 21 suburbs ({{Lang|ar|رَبَض}} ''rabaḍ'', pl. {{Lang|ar|أَرْبَاض}} ''arbāḍ'') developed around the city.{{Sfn|Bennison|2016|p=281}}

In 747, a battle took place in the surroundings of Córdoba, the {{ill|Battle of Saqunda|es|Batalla de Secunda}}, pitting Arab Yemenites against northerner [[Qays]].<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Pierre |last=Guichard |author-link=Pierre Guichard |url=http://www.awraq.es/blob.aspx?idx=5&nId=87&hash=c0f21a00feda9892ddff3275ea63027c |year=2013 |journal=Awraq |issn=0214-834X |issue=7 |pages=5–24 |title=Córdoba, de la conquista musulmana a la conquista cristiana |publisher=Casa Árabe |access-date=31 July 2021 |archive-date=31 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731075753/http://www.awraq.es/blob.aspx?idx=5&nId=87&hash=c0f21a00feda9892ddff3275ea63027c |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|8}}

Following the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] ousting of the Umayyad Caliphate after 750, the surviving Umayyad Abd ar-Rahman crossed to the Iberian Peninsula in 756. He proclaimed himself Emir [[Abd ar-Rahman I]] and established his dynasty in Córdoba once the [[rump state|rump]] ''wāli'' [[Yusuf ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri]] was defeated at a battle outside the city in May 756.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A History of Medieval Spain |first=Joseph F. |last=O'Callaghan |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |year=1983 |orig-year=1975 |isbn=978-0-8014-9264-8 |pages=100–101 }}</ref>{{Sfn|Guichard|2013|pp=9–10}} In 785–786 (169 [[Hijri year|AH]]) he ordered construction of the [[Great Mosque of Córdoba]], which was completed the next year and underwent later expansions under his successors.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Dodds |first=Jerrilynn D. |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/Al_Andalus_The_Art_of_Islamic_Spain |title=Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=1992 |isbn=0870996371 |editor-last=Dodds |editor-first=Jerrilynn D. |location=New York |pages=11–26 |chapter=The Great Mosque of Córdoba |access-date=15 July 2022 |archive-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531010719/https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/Al_Andalus_The_Art_of_Islamic_Spain |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last1=Barrucand |first1=Marianne |title=Moorish architecture in Andalusia |last2=Bednorz |first2=Achim |publisher=Taschen |year=1992 |isbn=3822896322 |pages=40 and after }}</ref>
[[File:Mezquita de Cordoba Mihrab.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mihrab]] of the [[Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba|Great Mosque]]]]
Historians' estimations of Córdoba's population during the 9th century range from 75,000 to 160,000.<ref>{{cite book |page=150 |title=The Measure of Civilization: How Social Development Decides the Fate of Nations |author=Ian Morris |year=2014 |isbn=9780691160863 |publisher=Princeton University Press }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |page=569 |chapter=Spain and Portugal: Trade and Commerce |year=2017 |title=Routledge Revivals: Trade, Travel and Exploration in the Middle Ages (2000) |publisher=Taylor & Francis |editor=John Block Friedman, Kristen Mossler Figg |isbn=9781351661324 }}</ref> The ruthless repression of the 818 revolt in the southern suburb of Córdoba led to the destruction of the place.{{Sfn|Guichard|2013|pp=12–13}} In the 10th and 11th centuries Córdoba was one of the most advanced cities in the world, and a great cultural, political, financial and economic centre.<ref name="Encyclopedia">{{Cite NIE |wstitle=Cordova |year=1905 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Spain from the 6th to 12th Century History |url=http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/h08hispania.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071018085730/http://fsmitha.com/h3/h08hispania.htm |archive-date=18 October 2007 }}</ref><ref>Amir Hussain, "Muslims, Pluralism, and Interfaith Dialogue", in ''Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender, and Pluralism'', Omid Safi (ed.), p.&nbsp;257 (Oneworld Publications, 2003).</ref>
[[File:Dirham abd al rahman iii 17494.jpg|thumb|[[Dirham]] emitted by [[Abd al-Rahman III]], coined in [[Medina Azahara]] (10th century)]]
Córdoba had a prosperous economy, with manufactured goods including leather, metal work, glazed tiles and textiles, and agricultural produce including a range of fruits, vegetables, herbs and spices, and materials such as cotton, flax and silk.<ref name="Córdoba: Historical Overview">{{cite web |title=Córdoba: Historical Overview |url=http://www.spainthenandnow.com/spanish-history/cordoba-historical-overview/default_41.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131030021158/http://www.spainthenandnow.com/spanish-history/cordoba-historical-overview/default_41.aspx |archive-date=30 October 2013 |access-date=14 April 2014 }}</ref> It was also famous as a centre of learning, home to over 80 libraries and institutions of learning,<ref name="Encyclopedia"/><ref name="BBC">{{cite web |title=Muslim Spain (711–1492) |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/spain_1.shtml |publisher=BBC |access-date=29 January 2017 |archive-date=27 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170227151217/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/spain_1.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> with knowledge of medicine, mathematics, astronomy, botany far exceeding the rest of Europe at the time.<ref name="Córdoba: Historical Overview"/> Later, the vizier [[Almanzor|al-Mansur]] – the ''de facto'' ruler of al-Andalus from 976 to 1002 – burned most of the books on philosophy from the library of Caliph [[al-Hakam II]] to appease [[Maliki]] jurists (''[[ulama]]''); most of the others were sold off or perished in the civil strife not long after.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gilliot |first=Claude |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P-pGDwAAQBAJ&dq=al-mansur+cordoba+books+burned&pg=PT72 |title=Routledge Revivals: Medieval Islamic Civilization (2006): An Encyclopedia – Volume II |publisher=Routledge |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-351-66813-2 |editor-last=Meri |editor-first=Josef |pages=451 |language=en |chapter=Libraries |access-date=27 August 2022 |archive-date=25 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925032640/https://books.google.com/books?id=P-pGDwAAQBAJ&dq=al-mansur+cordoba+books+burned&pg=PT72#v=onepage&q=al-mansur%20cordoba%20books%20burned&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Safran |first=Janina M. |date=3 July 2014 |title=The politics of book burning in al-Andalus |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/17546559.2014.925134 |journal=Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=148–168 |doi=10.1080/17546559.2014.925134 |s2cid=153574149 |issn=1754-6559 |access-date=21 August 2022 |archive-date=25 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925033200/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17546559.2014.925134 |url-status=live }}</ref>

After a period of weak central rule, [[Abd al-Rahman III|Abd ar-Rahman III]] came to power as emir in 912 and campaigned lengthily and systematically to re-establish the authority of Córdoba across Al-Andalus. In 929, after years of military and diplomatic efforts, he felt confident enough to declare himself "[[Caliphate|caliph]]", a title challenging the Abbasid caliphs in [[Baghdad]] and the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] caliphs in North Africa. This inaugurated the height of Córdoba's power and influence in the 10th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Hugh |title=Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus |publisher=Routledge |year=1996 |isbn=9781317870418 |location= |pages= }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Catlos |first=Brian A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xKBfDwAAQBAJ&dq=kingdoms+of+faith&pg=PP1 |title=Kingdoms of Faith: A New History of Islamic Spain |publisher=Basic Books |year=2018 |isbn=9780465055876 |location=New York |access-date=27 August 2022 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922224337/https://books.google.com/books?id=xKBfDwAAQBAJ&dq=kingdoms+of+faith&pg=PP1 |url-status=live }}</ref> This century saw the construction of two palatine cities in the surroundings of Córdoba: [[Madinat al-Zahra|Madīnat al-Zahrā]] to the west, built by Abd ar-Rahman III, and another one built later by [[Almanzor|al-Mansur]] ({{ill|Medina Alzahira|es}}) to the east.{{Sfn|Guichard|2013|p=17}} 
[[Isa al-Razi]] describes Cordoba as "surrounded by many beautiful estates" and many varied fruit trees. The inner city of Cordoba was surrounded by 11 palaces, 22 ''almuna'' and 12 ''arbad'' (or suburbs), mainly on the right bank of the Guadalquivir, and in particular to the north and west of the city. Not much later, [[Ibn Bashkuwal]] lists a total of 21 suburbs (two to the south, three to the north, seven to the east and nine to the west). To the north, part of the rabad al-Rusafa was located just south of the present Parador of Arruzafa (or Parador of Cordoba), where excavations in the 1990s uncovered the remains of a variety of ''almuna'', Roman villas and irrigation systems (with one ''[[Cistern|aljibe]]'' of the early medieval period preserved in the basement of a private suburban house).{{sfn|Scales|1997|p=177}}
The economic historian [[J. Bradford DeLong]] estimates the city's population at 400,000 around 1000 AD,<ref name=Population>{{citation |title=Princes and Merchants: European City Growth before the Industrial Revolution |author=J. Bradford De Long and Andrei Shleifer |s2cid=13961320 |journal=[[The Journal of Law and Economics]] |volume=36 |issue=2 |date=October 1993 |pages=671–702 [678] |doi=10.1086/467294 |url=http://www.j-bradford-delong.net/pdf_files/Princes.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.164.4092 |access-date=27 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180729053941/http://www.j-bradford-delong.net/pdf_files/Princes.pdf |archive-date=29 July 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> while estimates from other historians range from 100,000 to 1,000,000 during the same era.{{Sfn|Guichard|2013|pp=17–18}} Whatever Córdoba's population was, the city's apogee came to an abrupt halt after the 1009 crisis.{{Sfn|Guichard|2013|p=18}}

On 15 February 1009, with [[Hisham II]] as caliph and [[Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo]] as hajib (and ''de facto'' ruler), a revolution broke out in Córdoba, which led to the proclamation of an alternative caliph.{{Sfn|Peinado Santaella|2012|p=110}} This marked the beginning of a long period of civil war and conflict in Al-Andalus known as the ''[[Fitna of al-Andalus|Fitna]]''. Berbers entered and sacked Córdoba in May 1013.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m5KQtWX0TTcC&pg=PA110 |page=110 |title=Breve historia de Andalucía |editor-first=Manuel |editor-last=Peña Díaz |year=2012 |isbn=978-84-939926-1-3 |publisher=Centro de Estudios Andaluces |first=Rafael G. |last=Peinado Santaella |chapter=El período andalusí (ss. VIII-XV) |access-date=16 November 2021 |archive-date=25 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925033144/https://books.google.com/books?id=m5KQtWX0TTcC&pg=PA110#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Hisham III]] was routed from Córdoba on 30 November 1031 and an oligarchic republic replaced the caliphate.{{Sfn|Peinado Santaella|2012|p=111}}<ref>[http://www.spainthenandnow.com/spanish-history/10th-c-al-andalus-al-mansur/default_144.aspx "10th C. Al-Andalus: Al-Mansur."] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161008085451/http://www.spainthenandnow.com/spanish-history/10th-c-al-andalus-al-mansur/default_144.aspx |date=8 October 2016 }} and [http://users.ipfw.edu/jehle/deisenbe/Enc_of_Medieval_Iberia/homosexuality.pdf Daniel Eisenberg, "Homosexuality" in ''Medieval Iberia: An Encyclopedia'', ed. Michael Gerli (Routledge, 2003), 398.] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160328011756/http://users.ipfw.edu/jehle/deisenbe/Enc_of_Medieval_Iberia/homosexuality.pdf |date=28 March 2016 }} and J. B. Bury, The Cambridge Medieval History vol 3 – Germany and the Western Empire (CreateSpace Independent Publishing, 2011), 378–379.</ref>

=== High and Late Middle Ages ===
{{See also|Taifa of Córdoba}}
Under rule of the Banu Yahwar, Cordobese power did not extend far from the city, as other independent polities emerged in the rest of the former caliphate.{{Sfn|Guichard|2013|p=18}}<ref name="Meri2005">{{cite book |first=Josef W. |last=Meri |title=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H-k9oc9xsuAC&pg=PA176 |date=31 October 2005 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-96690-0 |page=176 |access-date=1 December 2018 |archive-date=25 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925033144/https://books.google.com/books?id=H-k9oc9xsuAC&pg=PA176#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> An estimation of 65,000 inhabitants has been proposed for 11th-century Córdoba.{{Sfn|Guichard|2013|pp=19–20}}

In 1070, forces from the Abbadid [[Taifa of Seville]] entered Córdoba to help in the defence of the city, which had been besieged by [[al-Mamun of Toledo]], ruler of Toledo, yet they took control and expelled the last ruler of the taifa of Córdoba, Abd-Al Malik, forcing him to exile.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/4764209.pdf |title=Las monedas de los Banū Ŷahwar de Córdoba – 422 – 462 h. / 1031-1070d.C. |first=Rafael |last=Frochoso Sánchez |year=2014 |journal=OMNI, Numismatic Journal |issn=2104-8363 |access-date=14 August 2020 |archive-date=22 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220322023901/https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/4764209.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Al-Mamun did not cease in his efforts to take the city, and making use of a Sevillian renegade who murdered the Abbadid governor, he triumphantly entered the city on 15 February 1075, only to die there barely five months later, apparently poisoned.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://descargasarchivo.toledo.es/high.raw?id=0000022088&name=00000001.original.pdf&attachment=Tulaytula+%3A+revista+de+la+Asociaci%C3%B3n+de+Amigos+del+Toledo+Isl%C3%A1mico.+1999%2C+n.%C2%BA+4..pdf |publisher=Asociación de Amigos del Toledo Islámico |location=Toledo |title=La Dinastía de los Banu Di L-Nun de Toledo |first=Julio |last=Porres Martín-Cleto |pages=37–48 |journal=Tulaytula |issue=4 |volume=III |year=1999 |access-date=14 August 2020 |archive-date=27 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927100507/https://descargasarchivo.toledo.es/high.raw?id=0000022088&name=00000001.original.pdf&attachment=Tulaytula%20%3A%20revista%20de%20la%20Asociaci%C3%B3n%20de%20Amigos%20del%20Toledo%20Isl%C3%A1mico.%201999%2C%20n.%C2%BA%204..pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|40}} Córdoba was seized by force in March 1091 by the [[Almoravid]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://archivos.csif.es/archivos/andalucia/ensenanza/revistas/csicsif/revista/pdf/Numero_41/MARIA_JESUS_COENA_DEL_REAL_02.pdf |title=Los inicios de la hegemonía castellano-leonesa y la invasión almorávide |first=María Jesús |last=Coeña del Real |journal=Innovación y experiencias educativas |issn=1988-6047 |issue=41 |year=2011 |page=5 |access-date=14 August 2020 |archive-date=29 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129184905/https://archivos.csif.es/archivos/andalucia/ensenanza/revistas/csicsif/revista/pdf/Numero_41/MARIA_JESUS_COENA_DEL_REAL_02.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1121, the population revolted against the abuses of the Almoravid governor.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RgU8jGG-y2gC&pg=PA190 |page=190 |title=La España medieval: sociedades, estados, culturas |first=Emilio |last=Mitre |location=Tres Cantos |publisher=Ediciones Istmo |year=2008 |orig-year=1979 |isbn=978-84-7090-094-5 |access-date=16 November 2021 |archive-date=25 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925033145/https://books.google.com/books?id=RgU8jGG-y2gC&pg=PA190#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

Sworn enemies of the [[Almoravid dynasty]], the "Wolf King" [[Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Saʿd ibn Mardanīsh]] and his stepfather [[ibn Hamušk]] allied with [[Alfonso VIII of Castile]] and laid siege to Córdoba by 1158–1160, ravaging the surroundings but failing to take the city.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=El Reino Taifa de Segura |journal=Boletín del Instituto de Estudios Giennenses |issn=0561-3590 |issue=153 |year=1994 |url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/1200629.pdf |page=388 |last=Cruz Aguilar |first=Emilio de la |access-date=15 August 2020 |archive-date=18 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190918175120/https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/1200629.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Almohad caliph [[Abdallah al-Adil]] appointed {{ill|Al-Bayyasi|es}} (brother of [[Zayd Abu Zayd]]) as governor of Córdoba in 1224, only to see the later became independent from Caliphal rule.{{Sfn|Molina López|1986|p=41}} Al-Bayyasi asked [[Ferdinand III of Castile]] for help and Córdoba revolted against him.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Por una cronología histórica sobre el Šarq Al-Andalus (s. XIII) |year=1986 |first=Emilio |last=Molina López |page=41 |issn=0213-3482 |doi=10.14198/ShAnd.1986.3.05 |journal=Sharq Al-Andalus |issue=3 |location=Alicante |publisher=[[University of Alicante|Universidad de Alicante. Área de Estudios Árabes e Islámicos]] |url=https://rua.ua.es/dspace/bitstream/10045/18048/1/Sharq%20Al-Andalus_03_05.pdf |doi-access=free |access-date=14 August 2020 |archive-date=1 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201022335/https://rua.ua.es/dspace/bitstream/10045/18048/1/Sharq%20Al-Andalus_03_05.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Years later, in 1229, the city submitted to the authority of [[Ibn Hud]],{{Sfn|Molina López|1986|p=43}} disavowing him in 1233, joining instead the territories under [[Muhammad I of Granada|Muhammad Ibn al-Aḥmar]],{{Sfn|Molina López|1986|p=45}} ruler of Arjona and soon-to-be emir of Granada.

Ferdinand III entered the city on 29 June 1236, following a siege of several months. According to Arab sources, Córdoba fell on 23 [[Shawwal]] 633 (that is, on 30 June 1236, a day later than Christian tradition).<ref>{{Cite book |location=Seville |publisher=[[Universidad de Sevilla]]; [[Universidad de Cádiz]] |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312398201 |page=43 |first=Alejandro |last=García Sanjuán |year=2016 |title=Arcos y el nacimiento de la frontera andaluza (1264–1330) |editor-first=Manuel |editor-last=González Jiménez |editor-first2=Rafael |editor-last2=Sánchez Saus |chapter=La conquista cristiana de Andalucía y el destino de la población musulmana (621-62 H/1224-64). La aportación de las fuentes árabes }}</ref> Upon the city's conquest the mosque was converted into a Catholic cathedral dedicated to the [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]] (''Santa Maria'').<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Ecker |first=Heather |date=2003 |title=The Great Mosque of Córdoba in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1523329 |journal=Muqarnas |volume=20 |pages=113–141 |doi=10.1163/22118993-90000041 |jstor=1523329 |access-date=21 August 2022 |archive-date=7 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407144513/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1523329 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2" /> This was also followed by the return to [[Santiago de Compostela]] of the church bells that had been looted by Almanzor and moved to Córdoba by Christian war prisoners in the late 10th century.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://medievalistas.es/wp-content/uploads/attachments/00895.pdf |title=La Península Ibérica en tiempos de Las Navas de Tolosa |location=Madrid |year=2014 |isbn=978-84-941363-8-2 |page=224 |chapter=Fernando III y la repoblación de Andalucía |first=Manuel |last=González Jiménez |access-date=14 August 2020 |archive-date=26 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126214938/https://medievalistas.es/wp-content/uploads/attachments/00895.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Ferdinand III granted the city a ''[[fuero]]'' in 1241;<ref>{{Cite journal |title=El fuero de Córdoba: edición crítica y traducción |first=Joaquín |last=Mellado Rodríguez |journal=Arbor |volume=CLXVI |issue=654 |year=2000 |page=192 |location=Madrid |publisher=[[Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas]] |url=http://arbor.revistas.csic.es/index.php/arbor/article/view/1011 |doi=10.3989/arbor.2000.i654.1011 |issn=0210-1963 |doi-access=free |hdl=10396/7810 |hdl-access=free |access-date=14 August 2020 |archive-date=1 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201014952/http://arbor.revistas.csic.es/index.php/arbor/article/view/1011 |url-status=live }}</ref> it was based on the ''[[Visigothic Code|Liber Iudiciorum]]'' and in the customs of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], yet formulated in an original way.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://idus.us.es/bitstream/handle/11441/82928/art_8.pdf?sequence=1 |first=Manuel |last=González Jiménez |title=Fernando III El Santo, legislador |journal=Boletín de la Real Academia Sevillana de Buenas Letras: Minervae Baeticae |issn=0214-4395 |issue=29 |year=2001 |pages=115–116 |access-date=14 August 2020 |archive-date=3 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203030722/https://idus.us.es/bitstream/handle/11441/82928/art_8.pdf?sequence=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> Unlike the case of other kingdoms of the Crown of Castile, the wider [[Kingdom of Córdoba]] distinctly lacked ''realengo'' (royal demesne) council towns other than the capital city itself.<ref>{{Cite book |year=1995 |title=Medievo Hispano. Estudios in memoriam del prof. Derek W. Lomax |location=Madrid |publisher=Sociedad Española de Estudios Medievales |chapter-url=https://medievalistas.es/wp-content/uploads/attachments/00204.pdf |page=91 |chapter=Notas sobre la conquista y la organización territorial del reino de Córdoba en el siglo XIII |first=Emilio |last=Cabrera |access-date=25 October 2023 |archive-date=9 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109144811/https://medievalistas.es/wp-content/uploads/attachments/00204.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In addition, the military orders had a comparatively lesser presence across the realm.{{Sfn|Cabrera|1995|pp=92–93}} The city was divided into 14 ''colaciones'',{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}} and numerous new church buildings were added.

By the end of the 13th century, the land belonging to the council of Córdoba peaked at about 12,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>.{{Sfn|Berrocal Barea|Martín Moreno|Montero Rascón|1992|p=24}} It progressively reduced upon creation of new lordships, amounting to about 9,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> by the end of the middle ages.{{Sfn|Berrocal Barea|Martín Moreno|Montero Rascón|1992|p=24}}

The city's surrounding countryside was raided during the 1277–78 Marinid expedition in the Guadalquivir valley.{{Sfn|Alcántara Valle|2015|pp=31–32}} In 1282, in the context of the problematic succession of Alfonso X of Castile, an army formed by the latter's supporters as well as Marinid forces laid siege to the city (where [[Sancho IV of Castile|prince Sancho]] was) for 21 days.<ref>{{Cite journal |first=José María |last=Alcántara Valle |journal=Historia. Instituciones. Documentos |volume=42 |url=https://idus.us.es/bitstream/handle/11441/36344/La%20guerra%20y%20la%20paz%20en%20la%20frontera%20de%20Granada%20durante%20el%20reinado%20de%20Alfonso%20X.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |title=La guerra y la paz en la frontera de Granada durante el reinado de Alfonso X |year=2015 |issue=42 |issn=0210-7716 |doi=10.12795/hid.2015.i42.01 |pages=35–36 |access-date=25 October 2023 |archive-date=9 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109144819/https://idus.us.es/bitstream/handle/11441/36344/La%20guerra%20y%20la%20paz%20en%20la%20frontera%20de%20Granada%20durante%20el%20reinado%20de%20Alfonso%20X.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ibn Abi Zar' |title=Rawd Al Qirtaas |publisher=Darul Mansur |year=1972 |pages=321–327 |language=Arabic }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=O'Callaghan |first=Joseph F. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/794925519 |title=The Gibraltar crusade : Castile and the battle for the Strait |date=2011 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-0463-6 |location=Philadelphia |pages=73–75 |oclc=794925519 |access-date=18 January 2023 |archive-date=25 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925033148/https://search.worldcat.org/title/794925519 |url-status=live }}</ref> The city council had indeed joined a newly created brotherhood in 1282 together with other councils of the Upper Guadalquivir defending Sancho's dynastic rights against Alfonso's regal authoritarianism.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://idus.us.es/bitstream/handle/11441/70483/AH25.pdf?sequence=1 |title=Los orígenes medievales del regionalismo andaluz: La Hermandad General de Andalucía (1295–1325) |first=Manuel |last=García Fernández |year=2009 |journal=Andalucía en la Historia |volume=25 |page=41 |access-date=25 October 2023 |archive-date=9 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109144818/https://idus.us.es/bitstream/handle/11441/70483/AH25.pdf?sequence=1 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Many decades after during the [[Third siege of Gibraltar|Third Siege of Gibraltar]] in 1333, a diversionary Granadian army raided the countryside of Cordoba and encamped on the far side of the Roman Bridge of Cordoba. However the diversionary army had to return to Gibraltar to help their Marinid counterparts so no further action was taken.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vidal Castro |first=Francisco |title=Muhammad IV |url=https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/6553/muhammad-iv |access-date=18 January 2023 |archive-date=29 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230129153825/https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/6553/muhammad-iv |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1368, during the [[Castilian Civil War]], the city, loyal to the [[House of Trastámara|Trastámara]] side, was attacked by forces supporting of [[Peter I of Castile|Peter I]], with Granadan backing.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://helvia.uco.es/bitstream/handle/10396/7063/dyo_berrocal.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |title=Notas Histórico-Jurídicas sobre la Edad Media en Córdoba |first1=Francisco Javier |last1=Berrocal Barea |first2=Juan José |last2=Martín Moreno |first3=Mª. Carmen |last3=Montero Rascón |page=29 |year=1992 |journal=Derecho y Opinión |publisher=[[University of Córdoba (Spain)|Universidad de Córdoba, Servicio de Publicaciones]] |location=Córdoba |access-date=25 October 2023 |archive-date=25 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925033154/https://helvia.uco.es/bitstream/handle/10396/7063/dyo_berrocal.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Modern history===
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Vista de Córdoba (1567). Anton van den Wyngaerde.jpg|Panoramics of Córdoba as drawn by [[Anton van den Wyngaerde]] in 1567
</gallery>
In the context of the [[Early Modern Period]], the city experienced a golden age between 1530 and 1580, profiting from an economic activity based on the trade of [[Agriculture|agricultural product]]s and the preparation of clothes originally from [[Los Pedroches]], peaking at a population of about 50,000 by 1571.{{Sfn|Villar Movellán|1998|p=102}} A period of stagnation and ensuing decline followed.{{Sfn|Villar Movellán|1998|p=102}}
[[File:Posada, Cordoba - Sigurd Curman.jpg|thumb|right|People in front of an inn in Córdoba (1910)]]
It was reduced to 20,000 inhabitants in the 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=fgm847 |title=La población andaluza en el siglo XVIII |url=http://www2.ual.es/ideimand/la-poblacion-andaluza-en-el-siglo-xviii/ |access-date=20 February 2022 |website=Identidad e Imagen de Andalucía en la Edad Moderna |language=es |archive-date=25 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925033152/http://www2.ual.es/ideimand/la-poblacion-andaluza-en-el-siglo-xviii/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The population and economy started to increase again only in the early 20th century. The second half of the 19th century saw the arrival of railway transport via the opening of the Seville–Córdoba line on 2 June 1859.{{Sfn|López Serrano|2017|p=587}}

Córdoba was connected by railway to [[Jerez]] and [[Cádiz]] in 1861 and, in 1866, following the link with [[Manzanares, Ciudad Real|Manzanares]], with [[Madrid]].{{Sfn|López Serrano|2017|p=589}} The city was eventually connected to [[Málaga]] and [[Belmez, Córdoba|Belmez]].{{Sfn|López Serrano|2017|pp=593–597}}

On 18 July 1936, the military governor of the province, Colonel {{ill|Ciriaco Cascajo|es}}, launched the Nationalist ''[[Spanish coup of July 1936|coup]]'' in the city, bombing the civil government and arresting the civil governor, Rodríguez de León;<ref>{{cite book |title=The Spanish Civil War |url=https://archive.org/details/spanishcivilwar00thom_0 |url-access=registration |last=Thomas |first=Hugh |author-link=Hugh Thomas, Baron Thomas of Swynnerton |year=2001 |publisher=[[Modern Library]] |location=London |pages=[https://archive.org/details/spanishcivilwar00thom_0/page/1096 1096] |isbn=9780375755156 }}</ref> these actions ignited the [[Spanish Civil War]]. Following the orders of the [[putschist]] General [[Queipo de Llano]], he declared a state of war. The putschists were met by the resistance of the political and social representatives who had gathered in the civil government headquarters,{{Sfn|Ponce Alberca|García Bonilla|2008|p=11}} and remained there until the Nationalist rifle fire and the presence of artillery broke their morale. When its defenders began fleeing the building, Rodríguez de León finally decided to surrender and was arrested.<ref>{{cite book |page=11 |url=https://www.centrodeestudiosandaluces.es/datos/factoriaideas/ifo14_08.pdf |chapter=Guerra y poder. Los gobernadores civiles en Andalucía (1936–1939) |first1=Julio |last1=Ponce Alberca |first2=Jesús |last2=García Bonilla |title=Guerra, Franquismo y Transición. Los gobernadores civiles en Andalucía (1936–1979) |isbn=978-84-691-6712-0 |year=2008 |publisher=Centro de Estudios Andaluces |location=Seville |access-date=15 August 2020 |archive-date=16 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220216091325/https://www.centrodeestudiosandaluces.es/datos/factoriaideas/ifo14_08.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the following weeks, Queipo de Llano and Major Bruno Ibañez carried out a bloody repression in which 2,000 persons were executed.{{Sfn|Thomas|2001|p=252}}{{Sfn|Thomas|2001|p=253}}{{Sfn|Thomas|2001|p=254}} The ensuing [[White Terror (Spain)|Francoist repression]] in wartime and in the immediate post-war period (1936–1951) is estimated to have led to around 9,579 killings in the province.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://w01.centrodeestudiosandaluces.es/actividades/sitios/archivos/1320864017462864577_CUADERNILLOTALLER.pdf |chapter=Las cifras de la violencia institucional y las mecánicas represivas del franquismo en Andalucía |first=Francisco |last=Cobo Romero |pages=51–66 |title=La represión franquista en Andalucía: Balance historiográfico, perspectivas teóricas y análisis de resultados |editor-first=Francisco |editor-last=Cobo Romero |year=2012 |publisher=Centro de Estudios Andaluces |isbn=9788493992606 |access-date=15 August 2020 |archive-date=27 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927133123/http://w01.centrodeestudiosandaluces.es/actividades/sitios/archivos/1320864017462864577_CUADERNILLOTALLER.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Mosque-Cathedral was declared a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] in 1984, and in 1994 this status was extended to the entire [[historic centre of Córdoba]].<ref name=":1">{{cite web |title=Historic Centre of Cordoba |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/313/ |access-date=12 October 2022 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |archive-date=19 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719134114/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/313/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The city has a number of modern areas, including the district of Zoco and the area surrounding the [[Córdoba railway station|railway station]].{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

The regional government (the [[Junta de Andalucía]]) has for some time{{When||date=August 2017}} been studying the creation of a ''Córdoba Metropolitan Area'' that would comprise, in addition to the capital itself, the towns of [[Villafranca de Córdoba]], [[Obejo]], [[La Carlota, Córdoba, Spain|La Carlota]], [[Villaharta]], [[Villaviciosa, Córdoba|Villaviciosa]], [[Almodóvar del Río]] and [[Guadalcázar (Córdoba)|Guadalcázar]]. The combined population of such an area would be around 351,000.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}