Editing Botswana (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of Botswana}}

===Pre-history===
[[File:Two Rhino.jpg|thumb|left|The 'Two Rhino' painting at [[Tsodilo]], a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]]]
It is estimated that hominids lived in Botswana during the [[Pleistocene]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pickford |first1=Martin |last2=Mein |first2=Pierre |last3=Senut |first3=Brigitte |title=Fossiliferous Neogene karst fillings in Angola, Botswana and Namibia |journal=South African Journal of Science |date=1994-04-01 |volume=90 |number=4 |pages=227–230 |hdl=10520/AJA00382353_5386 |url=https://journals.co.za/doi/abs/10.10520/AJA00382353_5386 |access-date=27 March 2024 |archive-date=17 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240417201733/https://journals.co.za/doi/abs/10.10520/AJA00382353_5386 |url-status=live}}</ref> Stone tools and animal remains indicate that all areas of the country were inhabited at least 400,000 years ago.<ref>Morton, F.; Ramsay, J. and Mgadla, T. (2008). ''Historical Dictionary of Botswana''. Scarecrow Press, p. 34; {{ISBN|9780810854673}}</ref>

It was claimed to have been the birthplace of all [[Early modern human|modern humans]] from around 200,000 years ago.<ref name="NAT-20191028">{{cite journal |last1= Chan |first1= Eva KF |last2= Timmermann |first2= Axel |author-link2= Axel Timmermann |last3= Baldi |first3= Benedetta F. |last4= Moore |first4= Andy E. |last5= Lyons |first5= Ruth J. |last6= Lee |first6= Sun-Seon |last7= Kalsbeek |first7= Anton MF |last8= Petersen |first8= Desiree C. |last9= Rautenbach |first9= Hannes |last10= Förtsch |first10= Hagen EA |last11= Bornman |first11= MS Riana |last12= Hayes |first12= Vanessa M. |date= 28 October 2019 |title=Human origins in a southern African palaeo-wetland and first migrations |url= https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1714-1 |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |publisher=[[Nature Research]] |volume=575 |issue=7781 |pmid=31659339 |pages=185–189 |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1714-1 |bibcode=2019Natur.575..185C |s2cid=204946938 |access-date=23 March 2020 |archive-date= 29 October 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191029013029/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1714-1 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-10-28 |title=Origin of modern humans 'traced to Botswana' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-50210701 |access-date=2024-07-10 |work=[[BBC]] |language=en-GB |archive-date=15 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240415020902/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-50210701 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Ancestral homeland of modern humans in Botswana, study finds |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/10/29/ancestral-homeland-of-modern-humans-in-botswana-study-finds |access-date=2024-07-10 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref> Evidence left by modern humans, such as cave paintings, is about 73,000 years old.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=24953669|year=2014|last1=Staurset|first1=S.|title=Sub-surface movement of stone artefacts at White Paintings Shelter, Tsodilo Hills, Botswana: Implications for the Middle Stone Age chronology of central southern Africa|journal=Journal of Human Evolution|volume=75|pages=153–165|last2=Coulson|first2=S.|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2014.04.006|bibcode=2014JHumE..75..153S}}</ref> The earliest known inhabitants of southern Africa are thought to have been the forebears of present-day [[San people|San]] ("Bushmen") and [[Khoi]] peoples. Both groups speak [[Click consonant|click languages]] from the small [[Khoe-Kwadi]], [[Kx'a]] and [[Tuu languages|Tuu]] language families whose members hunted, gathered and traded over long distances. When cattle were first introduced into southern Africa about 2,000 years ago, pastoralism became a major feature of the economy since the region had large grasslands free of [[tsetse flies]].<ref>Wilmsen, E. (1989) ''Land Filled With Flies: A Political Economy of the Kalahari''. Chicago: Chicago University Press, pp. 71–5. {{ISBN|9780226900155}}</ref>
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| caption3          = [[Domboshaba]] Ruins Stone Wall ''(top)'' and clay pottery plate ''(bottom)''
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It is unclear when [[Bantu languages|Bantu]]-speaking peoples first moved into the country from the north, although AD 600 seems to be a consensus estimate. In that era, the ancestors of the modern-day [[Kalanga people|Kalanga]] moved into what is now the north-eastern area of the country. These proto-Kalanga were closely connected to states in Zimbabwe as well as to the Mapungubwe state. One notable remanant of this period is [[Domboshaba]] ruins, a cultural and heritage site in Botswana initially occupied towards the end of the Great Zimbabwe period (1250–1450), with stone walls that have an average height of 1.8 metres. The site is a respected place for the people living in the region, and it is believed that the chief lived on the top of the hill with his helpers or assistants. These states, located outside of current Botswana's borders, appear to have kept massive herds of cattle—apparently at numbers approaching modern cattle density—in what is now the Central District.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Denbow |first1=James |year=1986 |title=A New Look at the Later Prehistory of the Kalahari |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=27 |issue=1 |page=15 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700029170 |jstor=181334 |s2cid=163079138}}</ref> This massive cattle-raising complex prospered until around 1300 and seems to have regressed following the collapse of Mapungubwe. During this era, the first Tswana-speaking groups, the [[Bakgalagadi]], moved into the southern areas of the [[Kalahari]]. These various peoples were connected to trade routes that ran via the [[Limpopo River]] to the [[Indian Ocean]]; trade goods from Asia such as beads made their way to Botswana, most likely in exchange for ivory, gold and [[Rhinoceros|rhinoceros horn]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Denbow|first1=James|last2=Klehm|first2=Carla|last3=Dussubieux|first3=Laure|date=April 2015|title=The glass beads of Kaitshàa and early Indian Ocean trade into the far hinterland of southern Africa|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/glass-beads-of-kaitshaa-and-early-indian-ocean-trade-into-the-far-interior-of-southern-africa/9BB659F4DA38A560EF64C4E8E3F49AFA|journal=Antiquity|language=en|volume=89|issue=344|pages=361–377|doi=10.15184/aqy.2014.50|s2cid=161212483|issn=0003-598X|access-date=29 May 2020|archive-date=24 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524064223/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/glass-beads-of-kaitshaa-and-early-indian-ocean-trade-into-the-far-interior-of-southern-africa/9BB659F4DA38A560EF64C4E8E3F49AFA|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Toutswemogala Hill]] Iron Age settlement's radio-carbon dates range from the 7th to late 19th century, indicating it was occupied for more than 1,000 years.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |title=Toutswemogala Hill Iron Age Settlement |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1340/ |access-date=2024-07-13 |website= |publisher=[[UNESCO World Heritage Centre]]}}</ref> The hill was part of the formation of early states in southern Africa, with cattle as a major source of economy.<ref name=":11" /> The Toutswe settlement includes house-floors, large heaps of vitrified cow dung, and burials while the outstanding structure is the stone wall.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dichaba |first=Tsholofelo Sele |date=2009 |title=From Monuments to Cultural Landscapes |url=https://repository.rice.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/9b50f2c1-a371-4c9b-9baa-0f80c353ecbf/content |journal=Rethinking Heritage Management in Botswana |publisher=[[Rice University]] |pages=42}}</ref> Around 1000 AD, the Toutswe people moved into Botswana.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017 |title=Archaeological impact assessment for the Bosa transmission line project from Theisang substation to the Tlokweng border post in the South Eastern and Kgatleng districts of Botswana |url=https://www.eskom.co.za/eia/tx/wp-content/uploads/migrated/MahikengIsang/DEIR-Appendicies/Ann-G-Specialist-Reports-2/G_5a.%20AIA%20Botswana%20Component.pdf |website=[[Eskom|Eskom.com]] |publisher=Lentswe Archaeological Consultants |page=10}}</ref>

However, agriculture also played a vital role in the longevity of Toutswemogala Hill's extended occupation, as many grain storage structures have also been found on the site. Many different stratified layers of housing floors further signal continuous occupation over hundreds of years. The arrival of the Tswana speakers' ancestors who came to control the region has yet to be dated precisely. Members of the [[Bakwena]], a chieftaincy under a leader named Kgabo II, made their way into the southern Kalahari by AD 1500, at the latest, and his people drove the Bakgalagadi inhabitants west into the desert. Over the years, several offshoots of the Bakwena moved into adjoining territories. The [[Bangwaketse]] occupied areas to the west, while the [[Bangwato]] moved northeast into former Kalanga areas.<ref>[[David Magang|Magang, D.]] (2008) ''The Magic of Perseverance: The Autobiography of David Magang''. Cape Town: CASAS, pp. 10–14; {{ISBN|9781920287702}}</ref> Not long afterwards, a Bangwato offshoot known as the Batawana migrated into the [[Okavango Delta]], probably in the 1790s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tlou|first=T.|date=1974|title=The Nature of Batswana States: Towards a Theory of Batswana Traditional Government – The Batawana Case|journal=Botswana Notes and Records|volume=6|pages=57–75|jstor=40959210|issn=0525-5090}}</ref>

===Mfecane and Batswana-Boer Wars===
{{main|Mfecane}}
[[File:Kapstaaten 1905.png|thumb|left|1905 German map of Southern Africa, showing the still-undivided [[Bechuanaland]] area]]
The first written records relating to modern-day Botswana appear in 1824. These records show that the Bangwaketse had become the predominant power in the region. Under the rule of Makaba II, the Bangwaketse kept vast herds of cattle in well-protected desert areas, and used their military prowess to raid their neighbours.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Morton|first=Fred|title=The Rise of a Raiding State: Makaba II's Ngwaketse, 1780–1824|url=https://www.academia.edu/11134264|access-date=25 January 2018|archive-date=16 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200816031919/https://www.academia.edu/11134264/The_Rise_of_a_Raiding_State_Makaba_IIs_Ngwaketse_1780_1824|url-status=live|pages=5–9}}</ref> Other chiefdoms in the area, by this time, had capitals of 10,000 or so and were fairly prosperous.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Morton, B. |title=Pre-1904 Population Estimates of the Tswana|journal=Botswana Notes and Records|volume=25 |year=1993|pages=89–99|jstor=40979984 }}</ref> This equilibrium came to end during the [[Mfecane]] period, 1823–1843, when a succession of invading peoples from South Africa entered the country. Although the Bangwaketse were able to defeat the invading [[Kololo people|Bakololo]] in 1826, over time, all the major chiefdoms in Botswana were attacked, weakened and impoverished. The Bakololo and [[Northern Ndebele people|AmaNdebele]] raided repeatedly and took large numbers of cattle, women and children from the Batswana—most of whom were driven into the desert or sanctuary areas such as hilltops and caves. Only after 1843, when the Amandebele moved into western Zimbabwe, did this threat subside.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Morton |first=Barry|date=2009-01-14|title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880|journal=South African Historical Journal|volume=36|pages=220–239|language=en|doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref>

[[File:Sechele Gustav Fritsch 1865.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Sechele I]], who led a Batswana Merafe Coalition against [[Boers]] in 1852]]

During the 1840s and 1850s, trade with [[Cape Colony]]-based merchants opened up and enabled the [[Tswana people|Batswana]] chiefdoms to rebuild. The [[Bakwena]], Bangwaketse, Bangwato and Batawana cooperated to control the lucrative ivory trade and used the proceeds to import horses and guns, which in turn enabled them to establish control over what is now Botswana. This process was largely complete by 1880, and the Batswana subjugated thus the Bushmen, Kalanga, Bakgalagadi and other current minorities.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/02582479708671276|title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880|journal=South African Historical Journal|volume=36|pages=220–239|year=1997|last1=Morton|first1=Barry}}</ref>

Following the [[Great Trek]], [[Afrikaners]] from the Cape Colony established themselves on the borders of Botswana in the [[South African Republic|Transvaal]]. In 1852, a coalition of [[Tswana people|Tswana]] chiefdoms led by [[Sechele I]] defeated Afrikaner incursions at the [[Battle of Dimawe]] and, after about eight years of intermittent tensions and hostilities, eventually came to a peace agreement in [[Potchefstroom]] in 1860. From that point on, the modern-day border between South Africa and Botswana was agreed on, and the Afrikaners and Batswana traded and worked together comparatively peacefully.<ref>[[David Magang|Magang, D.]] (2008) ''The Magic of Perseverance: The Autobiography of David Magang''. Cape Town: CASAS, pp. 28–38. {{ISBN|9781920287702}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author= Ramsay, J. |title=The Botswana-Boer War of 1852–53: How the Batswana Achieved Victory|journal=Botswana Notes and Records|volume= 23 |year=1991|pages=193–208|jstor=40980851 }}</ref>

In 1884, Batawana, a northern-based Tswana clan's cavalry under the command of Kgosi Moremi, fought and defeated the Ndebele's invasion of northern Botswana at the [[Tswana people|Battle of Khutiyabasadi]]. This is the start of the collapse of the Ndebele Kingdom in Zimbabwe and it helped the Tswana speaking authority.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ramsay |first=Jeff |title=The Guns of Khutiyabasadi (II) |url=http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?aid=72905&dir=2017/november/06 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124091704/https://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?aid=72905&dir=2017/november/06 |archive-date=24 November 2020 |access-date=2018-11-08 |work=[[Mmegi]]}}</ref>

Due to newly peaceful conditions, trade thrived between 1860 and 1880. Christian [[missionaries]] were able to take advantage of this. The [[Lutherans]] and the [[London Missionary Society]] both became established in the country by 1856. By 1880, every major village had a resident missionary, and their influence slowly grew. [[Khama III]] (reigned 1875–1923) was the first of the Tswana chiefs to make Christianity a state religion, and a great deal of Tswana customary law changed as a result. Christianity became the de facto official religion in all the chiefdoms by [[World War I]].<ref>Landau, P. (1995) ''The Realm of the Word: Language, Gender, and Christianity in the Southern African Kingdom''. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann.</ref>

===Colonialism===
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{{Main|Bechuanaland Protectorate}}
During the [[Scramble for Africa]], both the [[German Empire]] and Britain coveted the territory of Botswana. During the [[Berlin Conference]], Britain decided to annex Botswana to safeguard the Road to the North and thus connect the Cape Colony to its territories further north. It unilaterally annexed Tswana territories in January 1885 and then sent the [[Warren Expedition]] north to consolidate control over the area and convince the chiefs to accept British overrule. Despite their misgivings, they eventually acquiesced to this ''[[fait accompli]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/15645705 |title=The Invention and Perpetuation of Botswana's National Mythology, 1885–1966 |last1=Morton |first1=Barry |last2=Ramsay |first2=Jeff |pages=4–7 |access-date=13 July 2018 |via=academia.edu}}</ref><ref>"Warren informed Chiefs Bathoen of Bangwaketse, Khama of Bangwato and Sebele of Bakwena about the protection in May 1885 (Mogalakwe, 2006)." (from T.E. Malebeswa (2020): ''Tribal Territories Act, indirect rule, chiefs and subjects'')</ref>

In 1890, areas north of 22 degrees were added to the new Bechuanaland Protectorate. During the 1890s, the new territory was divided into eight different reserves, with fairly small amounts of land being left as freehold for white [[settler]]s. During the early 1890s, the British government decided to hand over the Bechuanaland Protectorate to the [[British South Africa Company]]. This plan, which was well on its way to fruition despite the entreaties of Tswana leaders who toured England in protest, was eventually foiled by the failure of the [[Jameson Raid]] in January 1896.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.academia.edu/15645705 |title=The Invention and Perpetuation of Botswana's National Mythology, 1885–1966 |last1=Morton |first1=Barry |last2=Ramsay |first2=Jeff |access-date=13 July 2018 |via=academia.edu |pages=7–11 |archive-date=28 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028165308/https://www.academia.edu/15645705 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Parsons, N. (1998) ''King Khama, Emperor Joe, and the Great White Queen: Victorian Britain Through African Eyes''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</ref>

When the [[Union of South Africa]] was formed from the main British colonies in the region in 1910, the High Commission Territories—the Bechuanaland Protectorate, [[Basutoland]] (now [[Lesotho]]) and [[Swaziland]] (now [[Eswatini]])—were not included, but provision was made for their later incorporation. However, the UK began to consult with their inhabitants as to their wishes. Although successive South African governments sought to have the territories transferred to their jurisdiction, the UK kept delaying; consequently, it never occurred. The election of the [[National Party (South Africa)|Nationalist]] government in 1948, which instituted [[apartheid]], and South Africa's withdrawal from the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] in 1961, ended any prospect of the UK or these territories agreeing to incorporation into South Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hayes|first=Frank|date=1980|title=South Africa's Departure from the Commonwealth, 1960–1961|journal=The International History Review|volume=2|issue=3|pages=453–484|doi=10.1080/07075332.1980.9640222|jstor=40105085|issn=0707-5332}}</ref>

An expansion of British central authority and the evolution of native government resulted in the 1920 establishment of two advisory councils to represent both Africans and Europeans.<ref name=EISA>{{cite web|url=http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/botoverview4.htm |title=Botswana: Late British colonialism (1945–1966) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603024427/http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/botoverview4.htm |archive-date=3 June 2012 |access-date=26 August 2016 |website=eisa.org}}</ref> The African Council consisted of the eight heads of the Tswana tribes and some elected members.<ref name=EISA /> Proclamations in 1934 regulated tribal rule and powers. A European-African advisory council was formed in 1951, and the 1961 constitution established a consultative legislative council.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana |url=https://clintonwhitehouse3.archives.gov/Africa/botswana.html |access-date=2024-06-11 |website=clintonwhitehouse3.archives.gov |archive-date=2 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240602105543/https://clintonwhitehouse3.archives.gov/Africa/botswana.html |url-status=live }}</ref>[[File:Botswana Independence Talks, 1965 - 2.png|thumb|[[Seretse Khama]] ''(right)'' and [[Quett Masire]] ''(left)'' at independence talks in London, 1965]]

===Independence===
In June 1964, the United Kingdom accepted proposals for a democratic self-government in Botswana. An independence conference was held in [[London]] in February 1966.<ref>{{cite web|title=U.K.: Bechuanaland independence conference opens in London 1966|url=https://www.britishpathe.com/video/VLVA1T4XABSD8UKW27D8CE76D4K2H-UK-BECHUANALAND-INDEPENDENCE-CONFERENCE-OPENS-IN-LONDON/query/Bechuanaland|website=British Pathé historical collection|access-date=20 January 2021|archive-date=4 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240604175143/https://www.britishpathe.com/asset/143349/|url-status=live}}</ref> The seat of government was moved in 1965 from [[Mahikeng]] in South Africa, to the newly established [[Gaborone]], located near Botswana's border with South Africa. Based on the 1965 constitution, the country held its first general elections under universal suffrage and gained independence on 30 September 1966.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britishempire.co.uk/article/fireworksatmidnight.htm |title=Fireworks at Midnight |website=Britishempire.co.uk |access-date=27 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161103054412/http://www.britishempire.co.uk/article/fireworksatmidnight.htm |archive-date=3 November 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Seretse Khama]], a leader in the independence movement,<ref>Rotberg, Robert I., 'Botswana: Africa's Democratic Exception', ''Overcoming the Oppressors: White and Black in Southern Africa'' (New York, 2023; online edn, Oxford Academic, 19 Jan. 2023), [[doi:10.1093/oso/9780197674208.003.0008|DOI]], accessed 11 June 2024.</ref> was elected as the first president, and subsequently re-elected twice.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Zuber |first=David |date=2022-04-04 |title=Seretse Khama (1921–1980) • |url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/people-global-african-history/seretse-khama-1921-1980/ |access-date=2024-06-11 |language=en-US |archive-date=6 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240606131806/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/people-global-african-history/seretse-khama-1921-1980/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Khama died in office in 1980. The presidency passed to the sitting vice-president, [[Quett Masire]], who was elected in his own right in 1984 and re-elected in 1989 and 1994. Masire retired from office in 1998. He was succeeded by [[Festus Mogae]], who was elected in 1999 and re-elected in 2004. The presidency passed in 2008 to [[Ian Khama]] (son of the first president), who had been serving as Mogae's vice-president since resigning his position as Commander of the [[Botswana Defence Force]] in 1998 to take up this civilian role. On 1 April 2018, [[Mokgweetsi Masisi|Mokgweetsi Eric Keabetswe Masisi]] was sworn in as the fifth president of Botswana, succeeding Ian Khama.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13040376|title=Botswana country profile|work=BBC News|date=3 April 2018|access-date=10 March 2021|archive-date=7 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307103607/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13040376|url-status=live}}</ref> A long-running dispute over the northern border with [[Namibia]]'s [[Caprivi Strip]] was the subject of a ruling by the [[International Court of Justice]] in December 1999. It ruled that [[Kasikili Island]] belongs to Botswana.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.southern-eagle.com/namibia/namgeninfo.html |title=Namibia General Information |publisher=Southern-eagle.com |date=21 March 1990 |access-date=21 August 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716112332/http://www.southern-eagle.com/namibia/namgeninfo.html |archive-date=16 July 2011 }}</ref>

The Botswana Democratic Party consistently held power until the [[2024 Botswana general election]], which was won by the [[Umbrella for Democratic Change]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c238n5zr51yo |work=BBC News|title=Botswana ruling party rejected after 58 years in power|first1=Wycliffe|last1=Muia|first2=Damian|last2=Zane|date=1 November 2024|access-date=3 January 2025}}</ref> On 1 November 2024, [[Duma Boko]], the leader of the UDC, was sworn in as president of Botswana, becaming the first president not to represent the BDP.<ref>{{cite news |title=Why is Botswana's peaceful power transfer being ignored?|first=George|last=Okachi|url=https://www.dw.com/en/world-headlines-ignore-botswanas-peaceful-power-transition/video-70686382 |work=dw.com|date=4 November 2024|access-date=3 January 2025 |language=en}}</ref>