Editing Bolivia (section)

== History ==
{{Main|History of Bolivia}}

=== Pre-colonial ===

[[File:Map_of_Wari_and_Tiawaku.svg|thumb|[[Tiwanaku Empire|Tiwanaku Polity]] at its largest territorial extent, AD 950 (present-day boundaries shown)|left]]
The region now known as Bolivia had been occupied for over 2,500 years when the [[Aymara people|Aymara]] arrived; however, present-day Aymara associate themselves with the ancient civilization of the [[Tiwanaku Empire|Tiwanaku Polity]], which had its capital at [[Tiwanaku]], in Western Bolivia. The capital city of Tiwanaku dates-back as early as 1500 BC, when it was a small, agriculturally-based village.{{sfn|Fagan|2001|p=203}}

The [[Aymara people|Aymara]] community grew to urban proportions between AD 600 and AD 800, becoming an important regional power in the southern [[Andes]] from [[La Paz]]. According to early estimates,{{When|date=February 2014}} the city covered approximately {{convert|6.5|sqkm|abbr=off|sp=us}} at its peak, and had between 15,000 and 30,000 inhabitants.{{sfn|Kolata|1993|p=145}} However, in 1996, [[Satellite imagery|satellite imaging]] was used to map the extent of preserved ''suka kollus'' ([[Raised field|flooded raised fields]]) across the three primary valleys of [[Tiwanaku]], with the results suggesting a population-carrying capacity of anywhere between 285,000 and 1,482,000 people.{{sfn|Kolata|1996|p={{page needed|date=July 2013}}}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tiwanaku, Bolivia - Crystalinks |url=https://www.crystalinks.com/tiwanaku.html |access-date=2025-05-16 |website=www.crystalinks.com}}</ref>

Around AD 400, Tiwanaku went from being a locally-dominant force to a 'predatory' state, aggressively expanding its reach into the [[Yungas]] and bringing its culture and ways to new peoples in Peru, Bolivia, and Chile. Nonetheless, Tiwanaku was not a violent or domineering culture; to expand its reach, the state exercised great political astuteness, created colonies, fostered local trade agreements (which made other cultures rather dependent), and instituted state cults.<ref name="McAndrews, Timothy L. 1997">{{cite journal|last1=McAndrews|first1=Timothy L.|last2=Albarracin-Jordan |first2= Juan |last3=Bermann |first3= Marc |title=Regional Settlement Patterns in the Tiwanaku Valley of Bolivia|journal=Journal of Field Archaeology|year=1997|volume=24|issue=1|pages=67–83|doi=10.2307/530562|jstor=530562 |issn = 0093-4690}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Rise and Fall |url=https://tiwanakuofbolivia.weebly.com/rise-and-fall.html |access-date=2025-05-16 |website=Tiwanaku |language=en}}</ref>

As rainfall gradually decreased, the stores of food supplies decreased, and thus the elites lost power. Tiwanaku disappeared around AD 1000. The area remained uninhabited for centuries thereafter.{{sfn|Kolata|1993|p={{page needed|date=July 2013}}}}

Between 1438 and 1527, [[Incan Empire]] expanded from its capital at [[Cusco]], gaining control over much of what is now the Bolivian Andes, and extending its control into the fringes of the Amazon basin.

=== Colonial period ===

[[File:Frontis casademoneda potosi.JPG|thumb|The [[National Mint of Bolivia|colonial Mint]] of [[Potosí]]]]

The Spanish conquest of the [[Inca empire]] began in 1524 and was mostly completed by 1533. The territory now called Bolivia was known as Charcas, and was under the authority of Spain. Local government came from the [[Real Audiencia of Charcas|Audiencia de Charcas]] located in Chuquisaca (La Plata—modern [[Sucre]]). Founded in 1545 as a mining town, [[Potosí]] soon produced fabulous wealth, becoming the largest city in the [[New World]] with a population exceeding 150,000 people.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.common-place.org/vol-03/no-04/potosi/ |title=The High Place: Potosi |last=Demos |first= John |publisher=Common-place.org |access-date=14 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114061035/http://www.common-place.org/vol-03/no-04/potosi/ |archive-date=14 November 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Demos |first=John |title=The High Place: Potosi |url=https://commonplace.online/article/high-place-potosi/ |access-date=2025-05-16 |website=Commonplace |language=en-US}}</ref>

[[File:Church in Historic Center - Sucre - Bolivia.jpg|thumb|[[Metropolitan Cathedral of Sucre]] in Sucre, a UNESCO World Heritage city]]
By the late 16th century, Bolivian silver was an important source of revenue for the [[Spanish Empire]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761575057_13/Spain.html |title=Conquest in the Americas |publisher=MSN Encarta |date=28 October 2009 |access-date=14 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028035130/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761575057_13/Spain.html |archive-date=28 October 2009}}</ref> A steady stream of natives served as labor force under the brutal, slave conditions of the Spanish version of the pre-Columbian draft system called the [[Mita (Inca)|mita]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/bolivia/29.htm |title=Bolivia – Ethnic Groups |publisher=Countrystudies.us |access-date=30 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629084332/http://countrystudies.us/bolivia/29.htm |archive-date=29 June 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> Charcas was transferred to the [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata]] in 1776 and the people from Buenos Aires, the capital of the Viceroyalty, coined the term "[[Upper Peru]]" ({{Langx|es|link=no|Alto Peru}}) as a popular reference to the Royal Audiencia of Charcas. [[Túpac Katari]] led the indigenous rebellion that laid siege to [[La Paz]] in March 1781,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Robins |first1= Nicholas A.|last2=Jones |first2= Adam|title=Genocides by the Oppressed: Subaltern Genocide in Theory and Practice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AX3UCk_PdEwC|year=2009|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-22077-6|pages=1–2|access-date=14 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015203222/https://books.google.com/books?id=AX3UCk_PdEwC|archive-date=15 October 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> during which 20,000 people died.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.duke.edu/~ems19/rebellions/rebellions.html |title=Rebellions |publisher=History Department, Duke University |date=22 February 1999 |access-date=14 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120131062804/http://www.duke.edu/~ems19/rebellions/rebellions.html |archive-date=31 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Stierman |first=Beth |date=2021-09-05 |title=Bartolina Sisa, a Bolivian heroine |url=https://chacofund.org/bartolina-sisa-a-bolivian-heroine/ |access-date=2025-05-16 |website=The Chaco Fund |language=en-US}}</ref> As Spanish royal authority weakened during the [[Napoleonic Wars]], sentiment against colonial rule grew.

=== Independence and subsequent wars ===
{{More sources|section|date=May 2025}}{{Main|History of Bolivia (1809–1920)}}

The [[Bolivian War of Independence|struggle for independence]] started in the city of [[Sucre]] on 25 May 1809 and the [[Chuquisaca Revolution]] (Chuquisaca was then the name of the city) is known as the first cry of Freedom in Latin America. That revolution was followed by the [[La Paz revolution]] on 16 July 1809. The La Paz revolution marked a complete split with the Spanish government, while the Chuquisaca Revolution established a local independent junta in the name of the Spanish King deposed by Napoleon Bonaparte. Both revolutions were short-lived and defeated by the Spanish authorities in the Viceroyalty of the Rio de La Plata, but the following year the [[Spanish American wars of independence]] raged across the continent.

Bolivia was captured and recaptured many times during the war by the [[Royalist (Spanish American Revolution)|royalists]] and patriots. Buenos Aires sent three military campaigns, all of which were defeated, and eventually limited itself to protecting the national borders at Salta. Bolivia was finally freed of Royalist dominion by Marshal [[Antonio José de Sucre]], with a military campaign coming from the North in support of the campaign of [[Simón Bolívar]]. After 16 years of war the Republic was [[Bolivian Declaration of Independence|proclaimed]] on 6 August 1825.

[[File:Coat of arms of Bolivia (1825).svg|thumb|The first coat of arms of Bolivia, formerly named the Republic of Bolívar in honor of [[Simón Bolívar]]]]

In 1836, Bolivia, under the rule of [[Marshal]] [[Andrés de Santa Cruz]], invaded Peru to reinstall the deposed president, General [[Luis José de Orbegoso]]. Peru and Bolivia formed the [[Peru-Bolivian Confederation]], with de Santa Cruz as the ''Supreme Protector''. Following tension between the Confederation and Chile, Chile declared war on 28 December 1836. Argentina separately declared war on the Confederation on 9 May 1837. The Peruvian-Bolivian forces achieved several major victories during the [[War of the Confederation]]: the defeat of the Argentine expedition and the defeat of the first Chilean expedition on the fields of [[Paucarpata District|Paucarpata]] near the city of [[Arequipa]]. The Chilean army and its Peruvian rebel allies surrendered unconditionally and signed the Paucarpata Treaty. The treaty stipulated that Chile would withdraw from Peru-Bolivia, Chile would return captured Confederate ships, economic relations would be normalized, and the Confederation would pay Peruvian debt to Chile. However, the Chilean government and public rejected the peace treaty. Chile organized a second attack on the Confederation and defeated it in the [[Battle of Yungay]]. After this defeat, Santa Cruz resigned and went to exile in Ecuador and then Paris, and the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation was dissolved.
[[File:Fachada del Banco Nacional de Bolivia, Sucre Bolivia.jpg|left|thumb|Historic headquarters of [[Banco Nacional de Bolivia]] in Sucre]]
Following the renewed independence of Peru, Peruvian president General [[Agustín Gamarra]] invaded Bolivia. On 18 November 1841, the battle de Ingavi took place, in which the Bolivian Army defeated the Peruvian troops of Gamarra (killed in the battle). After the victory, Bolivia invaded Peru on several fronts. The eviction of the Bolivian troops from the south of Peru would be achieved by the greater availability of material and human resources of Peru; the Bolivian Army did not have enough troops to maintain an occupation. In the district of Locumba – Tacna, a column of Peruvian soldiers and peasants defeated a Bolivian regiment in the so-called Battle of Los Altos de Chipe (Locumba). In the district of Sama and in Arica, the Peruvian colonel José María Lavayén organized a troop that managed to defeat the Bolivian forces of Colonel Rodríguez Magariños and threaten the port of Arica. In the battle of Tarapacá on 7 January 1842, Peruvian militias formed by the commander Juan Buendía defeated a detachment led by Bolivian colonel José María García, who died in the confrontation. Bolivian troops left Tacna, Arica and Tarapacá in February 1842, retreating towards Moquegua and Puno.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Albarracín: La portentosa Heroicidad|last=Cavagnaro Orellana|first=Luis|publisher=Archivo Regional de Tacna|year=2002}}</ref> The battles of Motoni and Orurillo forced the withdrawal of Bolivian forces occupying Peruvian territory and exposed Bolivia to the threat of counter-invasion. The Treaty of Puno was signed on 7 June 1842, ending the war. However, the climate of tension between Lima and La Paz would continue until 1847, when the signing of a Peace and Trade Treaty became effective.

A period of political and economic instability in the early-to-mid-19th century weakened Bolivia. In addition, during the [[War of the Pacific]] (1879–83), Chile occupied vast territories rich in [[natural resources]] south west of Bolivia, including the Bolivian [[coast]]. Chile took control of today's [[Chuquicamata]] area, the adjoining rich ''salitre'' ([[Sodium nitrate|saltpeter]]) fields, and the port of [[Antofagasta]] among other Bolivian territories.

Since independence, Bolivia has lost over half of its territory to neighboring countries.<ref>{{cite book |last=McGurn Centellas |first=Katherine |date=June 2008 |title=For Love of Land and Laboratory: Nation-building and Bioscience in Bolivia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VXD4SlJQYDgC&pg=PA97 |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-549-56569-7 |access-date=14 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015203222/https://books.google.com/books?id=VXD4SlJQYDgC&pg=PA97 |archive-date=15 October 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> Through diplomatic channels in 1909, it lost the basin of the Madre de Dios River and the territory of the Purus in the Amazon, yielding 250,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> to Peru.<ref>{{Citation|last=Portal Educabolivia|title=Pérdidas territoriales de Bolivia|date=1 August 2014|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ftw65nhfXsA| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211123/Ftw65nhfXsA| archive-date=23 November 2021 | url-status=live|access-date=28 May 2019}}{{cbignore}}</ref> It also lost the [[Acre (state)|state of Acre]], in the [[Acre War]], important because this region was known for its production of rubber. Peasants and the Bolivian army fought briefly but after a few victories, and facing the prospect of a total war against Brazil, it was forced to sign the [[Treaty of Petrópolis]] in 1903, in which Bolivia lost this rich territory. Popular myth has it that Bolivian president Mariano Melgarejo (1864–71) traded the land for what he called "a magnificent white horse" and Acre was subsequently flooded with Brazilians, which ultimately led to confrontation and fear of war with Brazil.<ref>{{Cite web|title=National Gallery: Bolivia {{!}} History Today|url=https://www.historytoday.com/national-gallery/national-gallery-bolivia|access-date=5 November 2021|website=www.historytoday.com|archive-date=5 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105031712/https://www.historytoday.com/national-gallery/national-gallery-bolivia|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In the late 19th century, an increase in the world price of silver brought Bolivia relative prosperity and political stability.

=== Early 20th century ===

{{Main|History of Bolivia (1920–1964)}}
[[File:Map Bolivia territorial loss-en.svg|thumb|left|Bolivia's territorial losses (1867–1938)]]
During the early 20th century, [[tin]] replaced silver as the country's most important source of wealth. A succession of governments controlled by the economic and social elite followed [[laissez-faire]] capitalist policies through the first 30 years of the 20th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Rabanus |first= David |url=http://www.bolivien-liest.de/en/country_en.html |title=Background note: Bolivia |publisher=Bolivien-liest.de |access-date=14 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130825224419/http://www.bolivien-liest.de/en/country_en.html |archive-date=25 August 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Living conditions of the native people, who constitute most of the population, remained deplorable. With work opportunities limited to primitive conditions in the mines and in large estates having nearly feudal status, they had no access to education, economic opportunity, and [[Participation (decision making)|political participation]]. Bolivia's defeat by Paraguay in the [[Chaco War]] (1932–1935), where Bolivia lost a great part of the [[Gran Chaco]] region in dispute, marked a turning-point.<ref>{{cite book |last=Osborne |first= Harold |title=Bolivia: A Land Divided |publisher=London: Royal Institute of International Affairs |year=1954}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=History World |title=History of Bolivia |publisher=National Grid for Learning |year=2004 |url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ac11 |access-date=12 May 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060821200723/http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ac11 |archive-date=21 August 2006 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Forero |first=Juan |title=History Helps Explain Bolivia's New Boldness |work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/07/weekinreview/07forero.html |date=7 May 2006 |access-date=26 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416175436/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/07/weekinreview/07forero.html |archive-date=16 April 2009 |url-status=live}} [http://www.geography.wisc.edu/archiveNews/2006/pdf/NYT-History%20Geography%20Bolivia.pdf (PDF)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324233328/http://www.geography.wisc.edu/archiveNews/2006/pdf/NYT-History%20Geography%20Bolivia.pdf |date=24 March 2009}}, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Department of Geography</ref>

On 7 April 1943, Bolivia entered [[World War II]], joining part of the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]], which caused president [[Enrique Peñaranda]] to declare war on the [[Axis powers]] of [[Nazi Germany|Germany]], [[Fascist Italy (1922-1943)|Italy]] and [[Empire of Japan|Japan]].

In 1945, Bolivia became a founding member of the United Nations.

The [[Revolutionary Nationalist Movement]] (MNR), the most historic political party, emerged as a broad-based party. Denied its victory in the 1951 presidential elections, the MNR led a successful revolution in 1952. Under President [[Víctor Paz Estenssoro]], the MNR, having strong popular pressure, introduced [[universal suffrage]] into his political platform and carried out a sweeping land-reform promoting rural education and nationalization of the country's largest tin mines.

=== Late 20th century ===

{{Main|History of Bolivia (1964–1982)}}
[[File:GralHugoBanzerSuarez.jpg|thumb|upright|In 1971 [[Hugo Banzer Suárez]], supported by the CIA, [[United States involvement in regime change|forcibly ousted]] President Torres in a coup.]]
Twelve years of tumultuous rule left the MNR divided. In 1964, a military [[military dictatorship|junta]] overthrew President Paz Estenssoro at the outset of his third term. The 1969 death of President [[René Barrientos]], a former member of the junta who was elected president in 1966, led to a succession of weak governments. Alarmed by the rising Popular Assembly and the increase in the popularity of President [[Juan José Torres]], the military, the MNR, and others installed [[Hugo Banzer]] as president in 1971. He returned to the presidency in 1997 through 2001. Torres, who had fled Bolivia, was kidnapped and assassinated in 1976 as part of [[Operation Condor]], the U.S.-supported campaign of political repression by South American right-wing dictators.<ref>{{cite news |title=Operation Condor on Trial in Argentina |url=http://www.ipsnews.net/2013/03/operation-condor-on-trial-in-argentina/ |work=[[Inter Press Service]] |date=5 March 2013 |access-date=17 November 2019 |archive-date=24 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220824093106/http://www.ipsnews.net/2013/03/operation-condor-on-trial-in-argentina/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

The United States' [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) financed and trained the Bolivian military dictatorship in the 1960s. The revolutionary leader [[Che Guevara]] was killed by a team of CIA officers and members of the Bolivian Army on 9 October 1967, in Bolivia. [[Félix Rodríguez (soldier)|Félix Rodríguez]] was a CIA officer on the team with the Bolivian Army that captured and shot Guevara.<ref name="BBC-2007-10-8">{{Cite journal| url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7027619.stm| title= CIA man recounts Che Guevara's death| last= Grant| first= Will| date= 8 October 2007| journal= BBC News| access-date= 2 January 2010| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100127043721/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7027619.stm| archive-date= 27 January 2010| url-status= live}}</ref> Rodriguez said that after he received a Bolivian presidential execution order, he told "the soldier who pulled the trigger to aim carefully, to remain consistent with the Bolivian government's story that Che had been killed in action during a clash with the Bolivian army." Rodriguez said the US government had wanted Che in Panama, and "I could have tried to falsify the command to the troops, and got Che to Panama as the US government said they had wanted", but that he had chosen to "let history run its course" as desired by Bolivia.<ref name="XXXI-172">{{Cite journal |title=Statements by Ernesto "Che" Guevara Prior to His Execution in Bolivia |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/johnsonlb/xxxi/36271.htm |journal=Foreign Relations of the United States |volume=XXXI, South and Central America; Mexico |id=XXXI: 172 |date=13 October 1967 |publisher=[[United States Department of State]] |access-date=22 May 2019 |archive-date=24 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220824093118/https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/johnsonlb/xxxi/36271.htm |url-status=live}}</ref>

Elections in 1978 were marked by fraud and those in 1979 were inconclusive. There were [[Coup d'état|coups d'état]], counter-coups, and caretaker governments. Following the 1980 election, General [[Luis García Meza]] carried out a coup d'état. The [[Bolivian Workers' Center]], which tried to resist the putsch, was violently repressed. More than a thousand people were killed in less than a year. Cousin of one of the most important narco-trafficker of the country, García Meza favored the production of cocaine.<ref>A Concise History of Bolivia, Cambridge Concise Histories, by Herbert S. Klein</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/theticket/articles/2006/0120/1137626790492.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130126130236/http://www.irishtimes.com/theticket/articles/2006/0120/1137626790492.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=26 January 2013 |title=Astroturfing all the way to No 1 |last=Boyd |first=Brian |date=20 January 2006 |newspaper=[[The Irish Times]] |access-date=7 April 2010}}</ref> After a military rebellion forced out García Meza in 1981, three other military governments in fourteen months struggled with Bolivia's growing economic problems. Unrest forced the military to convoke the [[National Congress of Bolivia|Congress]] elected in 1980, and allow it to choose a new president. In October 1982, [[Hernán Siles Zuazo]] again became president, twenty-two years after the end of his first term of office (1956–1960).

=== Democratic transition ===
{{main|History of Bolivia (1982–present)}}In 1993, [[Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada]] was elected [[President of Bolivia|president]] in alliance with the [[Revolutionary Liberation Movement Tupaq Katari|Tupac Katari Revolutionary Liberation Movement]], which inspired indigenous-sensitive and multicultural-aware policies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact94/wf950032.txt|title=1994 CIA World FactBook|access-date=4 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100418005802/http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact94/wf950032.txt|archive-date=18 April 2010|url-status=live}}</ref> Sánchez de Lozada pursued an aggressive economic and social reform agenda. The most dramatic reform was privatization under the "capitalization" program, under which investors, typically foreign, acquired 50% ownership and management control of public enterprises in return for agreed upon capital investments.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/07/01/business/international-business-bolivia-sells-utility-to-us-companies.html|title=INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS; Bolivia Sells Utility to U.S. Companies|last=Sims |first=Calvin |date=1 July 1995|newspaper=The New York Times|issn=0362-4331|access-date=31 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020155505/http://www.nytimes.com/1995/07/01/business/international-business-bolivia-sells-utility-to-us-companies.html|archive-date=20 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ewing|first1=Andrew|last2=Goldmark|first2=Susan|year=1994|title=Privatization by Capitalization : The Case of Bolivia – A Popular Participation Recipe for Cash-Starved SOEs|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/11679|journal=Viewpoint|publisher=World Bank|access-date=31 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011195151/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/11679|archive-date=11 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1993, Sanchez de Lozada introduced the ''Plan de Todos'', which led to the decentralization of government, introduction of [[intercultural bilingual education]], implementation of [[Agriculture|agrarian]] legislation, and [[privatization]] of state owned businesses. The plan explicitly stated that Bolivian citizens would own a minimum of 51% of enterprises; under the plan, most [[Government-owned corporation|state-owned enterprises]] (SOEs), though not mines, were sold.<ref>{{cite web|title=Historia de la República de Bolivia|url=http://www.mirabolivia.com/edu/historia.htm|access-date=4 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100228053542/http://www.mirabolivia.com/edu/historia.htm|archive-date=28 February 2010|url-status=live}}</ref> This privatization of SOEs led to a [[neoliberal]] structuring.<!--that acknowledged a diverse population within Bolivia. – Acknowledged how so?--><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.temple.edu/gus/kohl/documents/kohlplancitizenshipIJURR603.pdf |doi=10.1111/1468-2427.00451 |title=Restructuring Citizenship in Bolivia: El Plan de Todos |last=Kohl |first=Benjamin |year=2003 |journal=International Journal of Urban and Regional Research |volume=27 |issue=2 |page=337 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208112503/https://www.temple.edu/gus/kohl/documents/kohlplancitizenshipIJURR603.pdf |archive-date=8 February 2013 |citeseerx=10.1.1.363.2012}}</ref>

The reforms and economic restructuring were strongly opposed by certain segments of society, which instigated frequent and sometimes violent protests, particularly in La Paz and the Chapare [[coca]]-growing region, from 1994 through 1996. The indigenous population of the [[Andes|Andean]] region was not able to benefit from government reforms.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lucero|first=José Antonio|editor=John Burdick |editor2=Philip Oxhorn |editor3=Kenneth M. Roberts|title=Beyond neoliberalism in Latin America?|year=2009|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-230-61179-5|chapter=Decades Lost and Won: The Articulations of Indigenous Movements and Multicultural Neoliberalism in the Andes}}</ref> During this time, the umbrella labor-organization of Bolivia, the [[Central Obrera Boliviana]] (COB), became increasingly unable to effectively challenge government policy. A teachers' strike in 1995 was defeated because the COB could not marshal the support of many of its members, including construction and factory workers.

====1997–2002 General Banzer presidency====
In the 1997 elections, General [[Hugo Banzer]], leader of the [[Nationalist Democratic Action]] party (ADN) and former dictator (1971–1978), won 22% of the vote, while the MNR candidate won 18%. At the outset of his government, President Banzer launched a policy of using special police-units to eradicate physically the illegal coca of the Chapare region. The [[Revolutionary Left Movement (Bolivia)|Revolutionary Left Movement]] (MIR) of Jaime Paz Zamora remained a coalition-partner throughout the Banzer government, supporting this policy (called the Dignity Plan).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://chakana.nl/files/pub/AssiesSalman_2005_Ethnicity-and-Politics-in-Bolivia.pdf |title=Ethnicity and Politics in Bolivia |publisher=Ethnopolitics 4(3):269–297 |date=September 2005 |access-date=14 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724150223/http://chakana.nl/files/pub/AssiesSalman_2005_Ethnicity-and-Politics-in-Bolivia.pdf |archive-date=24 July 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The Banzer government continued the free-market and privatization-policies of its predecessor. The relatively robust economic growth of the mid-1990s continued until about the third year of its term in office. After that, regional, global and domestic factors contributed to a decline in economic growth. Financial crises in Argentina and Brazil, lower world prices for export commodities, and reduced employment in the coca sector depressed the Bolivian economy. The public also perceived a significant amount of public sector corruption. These factors contributed to increasing social protests during the second half of Banzer's term.

Between January 1999 and April 2000, large-scale [[2000 Cochabamba protests|protests]] erupted in [[Cochabamba]], Bolivia's third largest city at the time, in response to the [[Water privatization|privatization of water]] resources by foreign companies and a subsequent doubling of water prices. On 6 August 2001, Banzer resigned from office after being diagnosed with cancer. He died less than a year later. Vice President [[Jorge Quiroga|Jorge Fernando Quiroga Ramírez]] completed the final year of his term.

==== 2002–2005 Sánchez de Lozada / Mesa presidency ====

In the June 2002 national elections, former President [[Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada]] (MNR) placed first with 22.5% of the vote, followed by coca-advocate and native peasant-leader [[Evo Morales]] ([[Movement for Socialism (Bolivia)|Movement Toward Socialism]], MAS) with 20.9%. A July agreement between the MNR and the fourth-place MIR, which had again been led in the election by former President Jaime Paz Zamora, virtually ensured the election of Sánchez de Lozada in the congressional run-off, and on 6 August he was sworn in for the second time. The MNR platform featured three overarching objectives: economic reactivation (and job creation), anti-corruption, and social inclusion.

In 2003, the [[Bolivian gas conflict]] broke out. On 12 October 2003, the government imposed martial law in El Alto after 16 people were shot by the police and several dozen wounded in violent clashes. Faced with the option of resigning or more bloodshed, Sánchez de Lozada offered his resignation in a letter to an emergency session of Congress. After his resignation was accepted and his vice president, [[Carlos Mesa]], invested, he left on a commercially scheduled flight for the United States.

The country's internal situation became unfavorable for such political action on the international stage. After a resurgence of gas protests in 2005, Carlos Mesa attempted to resign in January 2005, but his offer was refused by Congress. On 22 March 2005, after weeks of new street protests from organizations accusing Mesa of bowing to U.S. corporate interests, Mesa again offered his resignation to Congress, which was accepted on 10 June. The chief justice of the Supreme Court, [[Eduardo Rodríguez (politician)|Eduardo Rodríguez]], was sworn as interim president to succeed the outgoing Carlos Mesa.

====2005–2019 Morales presidency====
{{POV section|date=September 2020|talk=Talk:Bolivia/Archive 2#NPOV}}
[[File:Presidentes_del_Perú_y_Bolivia_inauguran_Encuentro_Presidencial_y_III_Gabinete_Binacional_Perú-Bolivia_(36962597345)_(cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Former President, [[Evo Morales]]]]
[[Evo Morales]] won the [[Bolivian presidential election, 2005|2005 presidential election]] with 53.7% of the votes.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/19/world/americas/coca-advocate-wins-election-for-president-in-bolivia.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529185642/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/19/world/americas/coca-advocate-wins-election-for-president-in-bolivia.html |archive-date=29 May 2015 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Coca Advocate Wins Election for President in Bolivia |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=19 December 2005 |access-date=4 October 2020}}</ref> On 1 May 2006, Morales announced his intent to [[Bolivian gas conflict|re-nationalize Bolivian hydrocarbon assets]] following protests which demanded this action.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/02/world/americas/02bolivia.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060623191023/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/02/world/americas/02bolivia.html |archive-date=23 June 2006 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Bolivian Nationalizes the Oil and Gas Sector |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=2 May 2006 |access-date=4 October 2020}}</ref> Fulfilling a campaign promise, on 6 August 2006, Morales opened the [[Bolivian Constituent Assembly]] to begin writing a new constitution aimed at giving more power to the indigenous majority.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5251306.stm |title=Push for new Bolivia constitution |work=BBC News |date=6 August 2006 |access-date=30 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100327011109/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5251306.stm |archive-date=27 March 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref>

2009 marked the creation of a new constitution and the renaming of the country to the Plurinational State of Bolivia. The previous constitution did not allow a consecutive reelection of a president, but the new constitution allowed for just one reelection, starting the dispute if Evo Morales was enabled to run for a second term arguing he was elected under the last constitution. This also triggered a new general election in which Evo Morales was re-elected with 61.36% of the vote. His party, [[Movement for Socialism (Bolivia)|Movement for Socialism]], also won a two-thirds majority in both houses of the [[National Congress of Bolivia|National Congress]].<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|last2=Schipani|first2=Andres|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/dec/07/morales-presidential-victory|title=Evo Morales wins landslide victory in Bolivian presidential elections|date=7 December 2009|work=The Guardian|access-date=9 March 2020|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=19 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519000700/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/dec/07/morales-presidential-victory|url-status=live}}</ref> By 2013, after being reelected under the new constitution, Evo Morales and his party attempted a third term as President of Bolivia. The opposition argued that a third term would be unconstitutional, but the Bolivian Constitutional Court ruled that Morales' first term under the previous constitution did not count towards his term limit.<ref>{{Cite news|date=21 May 2013|title=Bolivia: New law backs President Evo Morales third term|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-22605030|access-date=4 October 2020|archive-date=11 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211163602/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-22605030|url-status=live}}</ref> This allowed Evo Morales to run for a third term in 2014, and he was re-elected with 64.22% of the vote.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2014/10/12/world/americas/bolivia-elections/index.html|title=Evo Morales declares victory in Bolivian election|author1=Carlos Montero|author2=Catherine E. Shoichet|website=CNN|date=12 October 2014|access-date=9 March 2020|archive-date=17 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200217225042/https://www.cnn.com/2014/10/12/world/americas/bolivia-elections/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> During his third term, Evo Morales began to plan for a fourth, and the [[2016 Bolivian constitutional referendum]] asked voters to override the constitution and allow Evo Morales to run for an additional term in office. Morales narrowly lost the referendum;<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.dw.com/en/bolivians-protest-after-supreme-court-allows-president-evo-morales-to-run-for-fourth-term/a-46622525 |title=Bolivians protest after Supreme Court allows President Evo Morales to run for fourth term |date=6 December 2018 |publisher=Deutsche Welle |access-date=9 March 2020 |archive-date=27 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027113640/https://www.dw.com/en/bolivians-protest-after-supreme-court-allows-president-evo-morales-to-run-for-fourth-term/a-46622525 |url-status=live}}</ref> however, in 2017 his party then petitioned the Bolivian Constitutional Court to override the constitution on the basis that the [[American Convention on Human Rights]] made term limits a human rights violation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nacla.org/news/2017/12/20/bolivia-says-goodbye-term-limits|title=Bolivia Says Goodbye to Term Limits|website=NACLA|access-date=9 March 2020|archive-date=18 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200118180032/https://nacla.org/news/2017/12/20/bolivia-says-goodbye-term-limits|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Inter-American Court of Human Rights]] determined that term limits are not a human rights violation in 2018;<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oas.org/en/media_center/press_release.asp?sCodigo=S-011/18|title=OAS – Organization of American States: Democracy for peace, security, and development|last=OAS|date=1 August 2009|website=www.oas.org|access-date=9 March 2020|archive-date=18 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518235022/https://www.oas.org/en/media_center/press_release.asp?sCodigo=S-011/18|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/default.aspx?pdffile=CDL-AD(2018)010-e|title=Venice Commission Report on Term-Limits Part I – Presidents|publisher=Council of Europe, Venice Commission|access-date=3 September 2019|archive-date=6 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906000942/https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/default.aspx?pdffile=CDL-AD(2018)010-e|url-status=live}}</ref> however, once again the Bolivian Constitutional Court ruled that Morales has permission to run for a fourth term in the 2019 elections, and this permission was not retracted. "[T]he country's highest court overruled the constitution, scrapping term limits altogether for every office. Morales can now run for a fourth term in 2019 – and for every election thereafter."<ref>{{Cite web|date=3 December 2017|title=Evo for ever? Bolivia scraps term limits as critics blast "coup" to keep Morales in power|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/dec/03/evo-morales-bolivia-president-election-limits|access-date=4 October 2020|website=The Guardian|archive-date=4 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201004030333/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/dec/03/evo-morales-bolivia-president-election-limits|url-status=live}}</ref>

The revenues generated by the partial [[nationalization]] of hydrocarbons made it possible to finance several social measures: the Renta Dignidad (or old age minimum) for people over 60 years old; the Juana Azurduy voucher (named after the revolutionary Juana Azurduy de Padilla, 1780–1862), which ensures the complete coverage of medical expenses for pregnant women and their children in order to fight infant mortality; the Juancito Pinto voucher (named after a child hero of the Pacific War, 1879–1884), an aid paid until the end of secondary school to parents whose children are in school in order to combat school dropout, and the Single Health System, which since 2018 has offered all Bolivians free medical care.<ref>« Bolivia, una mirada a los logros más importantes del nuevo modelo económico », Economía Plural, La Paz, 2019.</ref>

The reforms adopted made the Bolivian economic system the most successful and stable in the region. Between 2006 and 2019, GDP grew from $9 billion to over $40 billion, real wages increased, GDP per capita tripled, foreign exchange reserves rose, inflation was essentially eliminated, and extreme poverty fell from 38% to 15%, a 23-point drop.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dw.com/es/cu%C3%A1les-son-las-claves-del-%C3%A9xito-econ%C3%B3mico-boliviano/a-49541834 | title=¿Cuáles son las claves del éxito económico boliviano? &#124; DW &#124; 12.07.2019 | website=[[Deutsche Welle]] | access-date=13 November 2022 | archive-date=3 May 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200503011154/https://www.dw.com/es/cu%C3%A1les-son-las-claves-del-%C3%A9xito-econ%C3%B3mico-boliviano/a-49541834 | url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Interim government 2019–2020 ====
{{See also|2019 Bolivian general election|2019 Bolivian political crisis}}

During the 2019 elections, the [[2019 Bolivian general election|''Transmisión de Resultados Electorales Preliminares'' (TREP)]] (a quick count process used in Latin America as a transparency measure in electoral processes) was interrupted; at the time, Morales had a lead of 46.86 percent to Mesa's 36.72, after 95.63 percent of tally sheets were counted.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Long|first=Guillaume|title=What Happened in Bolivia's 2019 Vote Count? The Role of the OAS Electoral Observation Mission|url=https://cepr.net/images/stories/reports/bolivia-elections-2019-11.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://cepr.net/images/stories/reports/bolivia-elections-2019-11.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live|journal=Center for Economic and Policy Research|pages=18}}</ref> Two days after the interruption, the official count showed Morales fractionally clearing the 10-point margin he needed to avoid a runoff election, with the final official tally counted as 47.08 percent to Mesa's 36.51 percent, starting a wave of protests and tension in the country.

Amidst allegations of fraud perpetrated by the Morales government, widespread [[2019 Bolivian protests|protests]] were organized to dispute the election. On 10 November, the [[Organization of American States]] (OAS) released a preliminary report concluding several irregularities in the election,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Consulates in Argentina operational bases for Bolivian electoral fraud|url=https://en.mercopress.com/2019/12/14/consulates-in-argentina-operational-bases-for-bolivian-electoral-fraud|website=MercoPress|access-date=15 June 2020|archive-date=15 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615065319/https://en.mercopress.com/2019/12/14/consulates-in-argentina-operational-bases-for-bolivian-electoral-fraud|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last1=Valdivia|first1=Walter D.|date=17 March 2020|title=Bolivia's Electoral Fraud Reckoning|first2=Diego|last2=Escobari|url=https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/evo-morales-bolivia-presidential-election-fraud-by-walter-d-valdivia-and-diego-escobari-2020-03|access-date=15 June 2020|website=Project Syndicate|archive-date=8 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210908131157/https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/evo-morales-bolivia-presidential-election-fraud-by-walter-d-valdivia-and-diego-escobari-2020-03|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=12 pruebas del supuesto fraude electoral presentadas por ingenieros de la UMSA|url=https://eldeber.com.bo/154574_12-pruebas-del-supuesto-fraude-electoral-presentadas-por-ingenieros-de-la-umsa|access-date=15 June 2020|website=El Deber|date=25 October 2019|language=es|archive-date=15 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615065320/https://eldeber.com.bo/154574_12-pruebas-del-supuesto-fraude-electoral-presentadas-por-ingenieros-de-la-umsa|url-status=live}}</ref> though these findings were heavily disputed.<ref>{{Cite news|author=Anatoly Kurmanaev|author2=Maria Silvia Trigo|title=A Bitter Election. Accusations of Fraud. And Now Second Thoughts|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/07/world/americas/bolivia-election-evo-morales.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200607230016/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/07/world/americas/bolivia-election-evo-morales.html |archive-date=7 June 2020 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=5 August 2020|newspaper=The New York Times|date=7 June 2020}}</ref> ''The New York Times'' reported on 7 June 2020 that the OAS analysis immediately after the 20 October election was flawed yet fuelled "a chain of events that changed the South American nation's history".<ref>{{Cite news|last=Weisbrot|first=Mark|date=18 September 2020|title=Silence reigns on the US-backed coup against Evo Morales in Bolivia|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/sep/18/silence-us-backed-coup-evo-morales-bolivia-american-states|access-date=23 October 2020|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=18 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118195440/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/sep/18/silence-us-backed-coup-evo-morales-bolivia-american-states|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Greenwald|first=Glenn|date=8 June 2020|title=The New York Times Admits Key Falsehoods That Drove Last Year's Coup in Bolivia: Falsehoods Peddled by the U.S., Its Media, and the Times|url=https://theintercept.com/2020/06/08/the-nyt-admits-key-falsehoods-that-drove-last-years-coup-in-bolivia-falsehoods-peddled-by-the-u-s-its-media-and-the-nyt/|access-date=23 October 2020|website=The Intercept|archive-date=21 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200921043143/https://theintercept.com/2020/06/08/the-nyt-admits-key-falsehoods-that-drove-last-years-coup-in-bolivia-falsehoods-peddled-by-the-u-s-its-media-and-the-nyt/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Jordan|first=Chuck|date=4 September 2020|title=Congress should investigate OAS actions in Bolivia|url=https://thehill.com/blogs/congress-blog/foreign-policy/515085-congress-should-investigate-oas-actions-in-bolivia|access-date=23 October 2020|website=The Hill|archive-date=24 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024074517/https://thehill.com/blogs/congress-blog/foreign-policy/515085-congress-should-investigate-oas-actions-in-bolivia|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Mapa Electoral de Bolivia 2020 Bolivia.svg|thumb|[[2020 Bolivian general election]], results by department]]
[[File:Canciller Andrés Allamand participa del saludo protocolar al Presidente de Bolivia, Luis Arce, y al Vicepresidente, David Choquehuanca 02.jpg|thumb|Inauguration of [[Luis Arce]] and [[David Choquehuanca]] on 8 November 2020]]
After weeks of protests, Morales resigned on national television shortly after the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces General [[Williams Kaliman]] had urged that he do so to restore "peace and stability".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Londoño|first=Ernesto|date=10 November 2019|title=Bolivian Leader Evo Morales Steps Down|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/10/world/americas/evo-morales-bolivia.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/10/world/americas/evo-morales-bolivia.html |archive-date=1 January 2022 |url-access=limited|work=The New York Times}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Bolivia's president announces resignation|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-latin-america-50371215|access-date=4 October 2020|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414232830/https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-latin-america-50371215|url-status=live}}</ref> Opposition Senator [[Jeanine Áñez]] declared herself interim president, claiming constitutional succession after the president, vice president and both head of the legislature chambers. She was confirmed as interim president by the constitutional court who declared her succession to be constitutional and automatic.<ref>{{Cite web|title=TCP reconoce posesión de Jeanine Añez|url=https://www.paginasiete.bo/nacional/2019/11/12/tcp-reconoce-posesion-de-jeanine-anez-237202.html|website=www.paginasiete.bo|access-date=11 December 2019|archive-date=11 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211023739/https://www.paginasiete.bo/nacional/2019/11/12/tcp-reconoce-posesion-de-jeanine-anez-237202.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=13 November 2019|title=What's next for Bolivia?|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-50403648|access-date=14 April 2020|archive-date=1 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200701232812/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-50403648|url-status=live}}</ref> International politicians, scholars and journalists are divided between describing the event as a coup or a spontaneous social uprising against an unconstitutional fourth term.<ref name="BC2"><nowiki/>
*{{cite news|title=Bolivian President Evo Morales resigns|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-50370013|newspaper=BBC News|date=11 November 2019|access-date=23 March 2020|archive-date=25 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191125054606/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-50370013|url-status=live}}
*{{cite web|date=10 November 2019|title=Bolivian president Evo Morales resigns after election result dispute|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/nov/10/bolivian-president-evo-morales-resigns-after-election-result-dispute|access-date=10 November 2019|website=The Guardian|archive-date=11 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191111055233/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/nov/10/bolivian-president-evo-morales-resigns-after-election-result-dispute|url-status=live}}
*{{Cite news|date=11 November 2019|title=Nicaraguan government denounces "coup" in Bolivia: statement|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-nicaragua-bolivia-idUSKBN1XL06O|access-date=11 November 2019|archive-date=11 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191111222822/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-nicaragua-bolivia-idUSKBN1XL06O|url-status=live}}
*{{cite news|date=11 November 2019|title=Mexico says Bolivia suffered coup due to military pressure on Morales|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bolivia-election-mexico-minister/mexico-says-bolivia-suffered-coup-due-to-military-pressure-on-morales-idUSKBN1XL1S5|access-date=23 March 2020|archive-date=12 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112013317/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bolivia-election-mexico-minister/mexico-says-bolivia-suffered-coup-due-to-military-pressure-on-morales-idUSKBN1XL1S5|url-status=live}}
*{{cite web|author=Sofia Sanchez Manzanaro|author2=Marta Rodríguez|date=12 November 2019|title=Evo Morales political asylum: Is Bolivia facing a coup d'etat?|url=https://www.euronews.com/2019/11/11/evo-morales-resigns-is-bolivia-facing-a-coup-d-etat|website=Euronews|access-date=23 March 2020|archive-date=18 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200118233243/https://www.euronews.com/2019/11/11/evo-morales-resigns-is-bolivia-facing-a-coup-d-etat|url-status=live}}
*{{cite web|author=John Bowden|date=11 November 2019|title=Sanders "very concerned about what appears to be a coup" in Bolivia|url=https://thehill.com/policy/international/469951-sanders-says-very-concerned-about-what-appear-to-be-a-coup-in-bolivia|website=The Hill|access-date=23 March 2020|archive-date=5 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200605062922/https://thehill.com/policy/international/469951-sanders-says-very-concerned-about-what-appear-to-be-a-coup-in-bolivia|url-status=live}}
*{{cite web|date=11 November 2019|title=AP Explains: Did a coup force Bolivia's Evo Morales out?|url=https://apnews.com/6b2c94306089451d9761878c9f7ce2f1|access-date=4 December 2019|website=[[Associated Press]]|quote=Whether the events Sunday in Bolivia constitute a coup d'état is now the subject of debate in and outside the nation.&nbsp;... Bolivia's 'coup' is largely a question of semantics|archive-date=24 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024092220/https://apnews.com/6b2c94306089451d9761878c9f7ce2f1|url-status=live}}
</ref><ref>
*{{Cite news|last=Fisher|first=Max|date=12 November 2019|title=Bolivia Crisis Shows the Blurry Line Between Coup and Uprising|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/12/world/americas/bolivia-evo-morales-coup.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/12/world/americas/bolivia-evo-morales-coup.html |archive-date=1 January 2022 |url-access=limited|access-date=4 December 2019|issn=0362-4331|quote=But the Cold War-era language of coups and revolutions demands that such cases fit into clear narratives.&nbsp;... Experts on Bolivia and on coups joined forces on Monday to challenge the black-and-white characterizations, urging pundits and social media personalities to see the shades of gray.}}{{cbignore}}
*{{cite web|last=de Haldevang|first=Max|date=15 November 2019|title=The world's as divided about Bolivia's alleged coup as Bolivians themselves|url=https://qz.com/1748281/experts-are-divided-on-evo-morales-and-bolivias-alleged-coup/|access-date=4 December 2019|website=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]]|quote=So...<!-- The elipsis is used this way in the source. -->was it a coup? Experts are as divided as everyone else on the question.|archive-date=6 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206124449/https://qz.com/1748281/experts-are-divided-on-evo-morales-and-bolivias-alleged-coup/|url-status=live}}
*{{cite web|last=Johnson|first=Keith|title=Why Is Evo Morales Suddenly No Longer President of Bolivia?|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/11/11/evo-morales-resigns-president-bolivia/|access-date=4 December 2019|website=[[Foreign Policy]]|date=11 November 2019|quote=It's not a coup in any sense of the word, and Bolivia and Latin America have experience with actual coups. The army did not take charge of Bolivia. Morales, despite his protestations that police had an arrest warrant for him, is not in custody or even being sought.|archive-date=15 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191215120051/https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/11/11/evo-morales-resigns-president-bolivia/|url-status=live}}
*{{cite web|date=14 November 2019|title=Bolivia reflects the deep polarization crisis in Latin America|url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/bolivia-reflects-the-deep-polarization-crisis-in-latin-america/|access-date=4 December 2019|website=[[Atlantic Council]]|quote=Countries are debating why Evo Morales left power. Did he leave power of his own volition or was it a coup? There are two different responses to that question based on which country is speaking.|archive-date=4 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191204145704/https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/bolivia-reflects-the-deep-polarization-crisis-in-latin-america/|url-status=live}}
*{{cite web|last=Adams|first=David C.|date=12 November 2019|title=Coup or not a coup? Bolivia's Evo Morales flees presidential crisis|url=https://www.univision.com/univision-news/latin-america/coup-or-no-coup-bolivias-presidential-crisis|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191204145422/https://www.univision.com/univision-news/latin-america/coup-or-no-coup-bolivias-presidential-crisis|archive-date=4 December 2019|publisher=[[Univision]]|quote=The discussion over whether it was a coup falls largely along ideological lines. Left wing supporters of Morales point like to point to a long history of military coups in Latin America, while critics of the former president point to the 14 years he spent in power, in violation of constitutional term limits.&nbsp;... But political experts say the events hardly resemble a classic coup scenario.&nbsp;... In a typical coup, the military usually take a more proactive role, taking up arms against the sitting ruler and installing one of their own in the presidential palace, at least temporarily.}}</ref> Protests to reinstate Morales as president continued becoming highly violent: burning public buses and private houses, destroying public infrastructure and harming pedestrians.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Concejales exigen rigurosidad en la investigación sobre la quema de los 66 buses PumaKatari|work=Concejo Municipal de La Paz |date=21 January 2021|url=https://www.concejomunicipal.bo/2021/01/21/concejales-exigen-rigurosidad-en-la-investigacion-sobre-la-quema-de-los-66-buses-pumakatari/|access-date=26 April 2021|language=es|archive-date=26 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426072523/https://www.concejomunicipal.bo/2021/01/21/concejales-exigen-rigurosidad-en-la-investigacion-sobre-la-quema-de-los-66-buses-pumakatari/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Fiscalía rechaza investigar la quema de buses Pumakatari|url=https://correodelsur.com/seguridad/20201203_fiscalia-rechaza-investigar-la-quema-de-buses-pumakatari.html|access-date=26 April 2021|website=Correo del Sur|language=es|archive-date=26 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426072522/https://correodelsur.com/seguridad/20201203_fiscalia-rechaza-investigar-la-quema-de-buses-pumakatari.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Interrumpen declaración de periodista que denunciaba quema de su casa ante la CIDH|url=http://anp-bolivia.com/interrumpen-declaracion-de-periodista-que-denunciaba-quema-de-su-casa-ante-la-cidh/|access-date=26 April 2021|website=Asociación Nacional de Prensa Boliviana|language=es|archive-date=8 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608150751/https://anp-bolivia.com/interrumpen-declaracion-de-periodista-que-denunciaba-quema-de-su-casa-ante-la-cidh/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Imputan por tres delitos a dos implicados en la quema de la casa de Waldo Albarracín|url=https://www.la-razon.com/nacional/2020/01/24/imputan-por-tres-delitos-a-dos-implicados-en-la-quema-de-la-casa-de-waldo-albarracin/|access-date=26 April 2021|website=La Razón|archive-date=26 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426072522/https://www.la-razon.com/nacional/2020/01/24/imputan-por-tres-delitos-a-dos-implicados-en-la-quema-de-la-casa-de-waldo-albarracin/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Las imágenes de una nueva jornada de violencia y tensión callejera en Bolivia tras la renuncia de Evo Morales|language=es|work=BBC News Mundo|url=https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-50384460|access-date=26 April 2021|archive-date=26 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426072521/https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-50384460|url-status=live}}</ref> The protests were met with more violence by security forces against Morales supporters after Áñez exempted police and military from criminal responsibility in operations for "the restoration of order and public stability".<ref name="Estes 20192">{{Cite news|author=Nick Estes|date=26 November 2019|title=Is Bolivia turning into a rightwing military dictatorship?|work=The Guardian|url=http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/nov/26/bolivia-rightwing-military-dictatorship|access-date=23 October 2020|archive-date=26 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026032602/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/nov/26/bolivia-rightwing-military-dictatorship|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Miranda|first=Boris|date=20 November 2020|title=Crisis en Bolivia: las violentas protestas de partidarios de Evo Morales dejan 6 muertos y críticas a la represión del gobierno interino|url=https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-50484092|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200119124925/https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-50484092|archive-date=19 January 2020|language=es|newspaper=BBC News Mundo}}</ref>

In April 2020, the interim government took out a loan of more than $327&nbsp;million from the [[International Monetary Fund]] to meet the country's needs during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref name="sopitas1802212">{{cite news|last1=Ponce|first1=Erick|date=18 February 2021|title=¿Por qué Bolivia regresó crédito para enfrentar la pandemia de COVID al FMI?|language=es|work=Sopitas.com|url=https://www.sopitas.com/noticias/bolivia-regreso-credito-enfrentar-pandemia-covid-fmi/|access-date=19 February 2021|archive-date=19 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210219014736/https://www.sopitas.com/noticias/bolivia-regreso-credito-enfrentar-pandemia-covid-fmi/|url-status=live}}</ref> New elections were scheduled for 3 May 2020. In response to the [[COVID-19 pandemic|coronavirus pandemic]], the Bolivian electoral body, the TSE, made an announcement postponing the election. MAS reluctantly agreed with the first delay only. A date for the new election was delayed twice more, in the face of massive protests and violence.<ref>{{Cite web|date=23 September 2020|title=Bolivia, sumida en la violencia antes de las elecciones|url=https://www.dw.com/es/bolivia-sumida-en-la-violencia-antes-de-las-elecciones/a-55034034|access-date=4 October 2020|website=Deutsche Welle|language=es-ES|archive-date=6 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201006113632/https://www.dw.com/es/bolivia-sumida-en-la-violencia-antes-de-las-elecciones/a-55034034|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=24 March 2020|title=Copa Says Legislative Will Define New Election Date After Quarantine|url=http://www.la-razon.com/nacional/elecciones-presidencia-tse-asamblea_0_3336266412.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200326150254/http://www.la-razon.com/nacional/elecciones-presidencia-tse-asamblea_0_3336266412.html|archive-date=26 March 2020|access-date=26 March 2020|website=La Razon|language=es}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=25 March 2020|title=Parties in the electoral race avoid fixing the date of the elections; await quarantine report|url=http://www.la-razon.com/nacional/elecciones-bolivia-partidos-tse-coronavirus_0_3336866313.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200326150254/http://www.la-razon.com/nacional/elecciones-bolivia-partidos-tse-coronavirus_0_3336866313.html|archive-date=26 March 2020|access-date=26 March 2020|website=La Razon|language=es}}</ref> The final proposed date for the elections was 18 October 2020.<ref>{{cite web|date=8 September 2020|title=La Unión Europea enviará una misión de expertos a las elecciones de Bolivia del 18 de octubre|url=https://www.infobae.com/america/america-latina/2020/09/08/la-union-europea-enviara-una-mision-de-expertos-a-las-elecciones-de-bolivia-del-18-de-octubre/|access-date=10 September 2020|website=infobae|language=es-ES|archive-date=9 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200909222810/https://www.infobae.com/america/america-latina/2020/09/08/la-union-europea-enviara-una-mision-de-expertos-a-las-elecciones-de-bolivia-del-18-de-octubre/|url-status=live}}</ref> Observers from the OAS, UNIORE, and the UN all reported that they found no fraudulent actions in the 2020 elections.<ref>{{Cite web|title=ONU, OEA y Uniore descartan fraude en elecciones generales|url=https://www.paginasiete.bo/nacional/2020/10/23/onu-oea-uniore-descartan-fraude-en-elecciones-generales-272528.html|access-date=24 October 2020|website=www.paginasiete.bo|language=es|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414225506/https://www.paginasiete.bo/nacional/2020/10/23/onu-oea-uniore-descartan-fraude-en-elecciones-generales-272528.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The [[2020 Bolivian general election|general election]] had a record voter turnout of 88.4% and ended in a landslide win for MAS which took 55.1% of the votes compared to 28.8% for centrist former president Carlos Mesa. Both Mesa and Áñez conceded defeat.<ref>{{Cite web|date=19 October 2020|title=Morales aide claims victory in Bolivia's election redo|url=https://apnews.com/article/virus-outbreak-bolivia-evo-morales-elections-voting-fraud-and-irregularities-a3a68ec5df5889cc4010d5329603cb20|access-date=19 October 2020|website=AP News|archive-date=20 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020061433/https://apnews.com/article/virus-outbreak-bolivia-evo-morales-elections-voting-fraud-and-irregularities-a3a68ec5df5889cc4010d5329603cb20|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=23 October 2020|title=How Bolivia's left returned to power months after Morales was forced out|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/oct/23/bolivia-left-return-power-evo-morales-mas|access-date=24 October 2020|website=The Guardian|archive-date=24 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024032405/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/oct/23/bolivia-left-return-power-evo-morales-mas|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Government of Luis Arce: 2020 - present ====
On 8 November 2020, [[Luis Arce]] was sworn in as President of Bolivia alongside his Vice President [[David Choquehuanca]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Bolivia's Arce sworn in as socialists return to power after turbulent year |url=https://www.france24.com/en/americas/20201109-bolivia-s-arce-sworn-in-as-socialists-return-to-power-after-turbulent-year |work=France 24 |date=9 November 2020 |access-date=8 December 2022 |archive-date=8 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221208230256/https://www.france24.com/en/americas/20201109-bolivia-s-arce-sworn-in-as-socialists-return-to-power-after-turbulent-year |url-status=live}}</ref> In February 2021, the Arce government returned an amount of around $351&nbsp;million to the IMF. This comprised a loan of $327&nbsp;million taken out by the interim government in April 2020 and interest of around $24&nbsp;million. The government said it returned the loan to protect Bolivia's economic sovereignty and because the conditions attached to the loan were unacceptable.<ref name="sopitas1802212"/>

==== Coup d'état attempt of Juan José Zúñiga: 2024-present ====
{{main|2024 Bolivian coup d'état attempt}}

On 26 June 2024, a military coup attempt led by [[Juan José Zúñiga]] ended after lasting only 5 hours. In the evening of 26 June, Bolivian police arrested Zúñiga.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ramos |first=Daniel |date=June 26, 2024 |title=Bolivia coup attempt fails after military assault on presidential palace |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/bolivias-president-slams-irregular-mobilization-army-units-2024-06-26/ |access-date=June 26, 2024 |website=Rueters}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.foxnews.com/world/bolivian-president-survives-failed-coup-calls-democracy-respected | title=Bolivian president survives failed coup, calls for 'democracy to be respected,' army general arrested | website=[[Fox News]] | date=26 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cnn.com/2024/06/26/americas/bolivia-coup-attempt-claims-intl-latam/index.html | title=Attempted coup in Bolivia fails after president calls on country to mobilize in defense of democracy | website=[[CNN]] | date=26 June 2024}}</ref>