Editing Blackfoot Confederacy (section)

==History==
The Confederacy had{{when|date=November 2012}} a territory that stretched from the [[North Saskatchewan River]] (called ''Ponoká'sisaahta''){{dubious|date=November 2012}} along what is now [[Edmonton]], Alberta, in [[Canada]], to the [[Yellowstone River]] (called ''Otahkoiitahtayi'') of Montana in the [[United States]], and from the [[Rocky Mountains]] (called ''Miistakistsi'') and along the [[South Saskatchewan River]] to the present Alberta-Saskatchewan border (called ''Kaayihkimikoyi''),<ref>[[Annis May Timpson]]: ''First Nations, First Thoughts: The Impact of Indigenous Thought in Canada'', University of British Columbia, 2010, {{ISBN|978-0-7748-1552-9}}</ref> east past the [[Cypress Hills (Canada)|Cypress Hills]]. They called their tribal territory ''Niitsitpiis-stahkoii'' (ᖹᐟᒧᐧᐨᑯᐧ ᓴᐦᖾᐟ)- "Original People
s Land." To the east, the [[Innu people|Innu]] and [[Naskapi]] called their territory ''[[Nitassinan]]'' – "Our Land."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.blackfootcrossing.ca/ourland.html |title=Nitawahsin-nanni- Our Land |publisher=Blackfootcrossing.ca |date=29 January 2008 |access-date=16 December 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130807091616/http://blackfootcrossing.ca/ourland.html |archive-date=7 August 2013 }}</ref> They had adopted the use of the horse from other Plains tribes, probably by the early eighteenth century, which gave them expanded range and mobility, as well as advantages in hunting.

The basic [[Social group|social unit]] of the ''Niitsitapi'' above the family was [[Band society|the band]], varying from about 10 to 30 lodges, about 80 to 241 people. This size group was large enough to defend against attack and to undertake communal hunts, but was also small enough for flexibility. Each band consisted of a respected leader {{Citation needed|date=May 2014}}, possibly his brothers and parents, and others who were not related. {{Citation needed|date=May 2014}} Since the band was defined by place of residence, rather than by kinship, a person was free to leave one band and join another, which tended to ameliorate leadership disputes. Also, should a band fall upon hard times, its members could split up and join other bands. In practice, bands were constantly forming and breaking up. The system maximized flexibility and was an ideal organization for a hunting people on the northwestern [[Great Plains]].

[[File:Aatsista-Mahkan.jpg|thumb|Chief [[Aatsista-Mahkan]], c.1905.]]
During the summer, the people assembled for nation gatherings. In these large assemblies, warrior societies played an important role for the men. Membership into these societies was based on brave acts and deeds.

For almost half the year in the long northern winter, the Niitsitapi lived in their winter camps along a wooded river valley. They were located perhaps a day's march apart, not moving camp unless food for the people and horses, or firewood became depleted. Where there was adequate wood and game resources, some bands would camp together. During this part of the year, [[American Bison|buffalo]] also wintered in wooded areas, where they were partially sheltered from storms and snow. They were easier prey as their movements were hampered. In spring the buffalo moved out onto the grasslands to forage on new spring growth. The Blackfoot did not follow immediately, for fear of late [[blizzard]]s. As dried food or game became depleted, the bands would split up and begin to hunt the buffalo.

In midsummer, when the [[Chokecherry|chokecherries]] ripened, the people regrouped for their major ceremony, the ''Okan'' ([[Sun Dance]]). This was the only time of year when the four nations would assemble. The gathering reinforced the bonds among the various groups and linked individuals with the nations. Communal buffalo hunts provided food for the people, as well as offerings of the bulls' tongues (a delicacy) for the ceremonies. These ceremonies are sacred to the people. After the ''Okan'', the people again separated to follow the buffalo. They used the buffalo hides to make their dwellings and temporary tipis.

In the fall, the people would gradually shift to their wintering areas. The men would prepare the buffalo jumps and pounds for capturing or driving the bison for hunting. Several groups of people might join at particularly good sites, such as [[Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump]]. As the buffalo were naturally driven into the area by the gradual late summer drying off of the open grasslands, the Blackfoot would carry out great communal buffalo kills.

The women processed the buffalo, preparing dried meat, and combining it for nutrition and flavor with dried fruits into [[pemmican]], to last them through winter and other times when hunting was poor. At the end of the fall, the Blackfoot would move to their winter camps. The women worked the buffalo and other game skins for clothing, as well as to reinforce their dwellings; other elements were used to make warm fur robes, leggings, cords and other needed items. Animal sinews were used to tie arrow points and lances to throwing sticks, or for bridles for horses.

The Niitsitapi maintained this traditional way of life based on hunting bison, until the near [[Local extinction|extirpation]] of the bison by 1881 forced them to adapt their ways of life in response to the encroachment of the [[European colonization of the Americas|European settlers]] and their descendants. In the United States, they were restricted to land assigned in the [[Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851)|Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851]]. Nearly three decades later, they were given a distinct reservation in the Sweetgrass Hills Treaty of 1887. In 1877, the Canadian Niitsitapi signed [[Treaty 7]] and settled on [[Indian reserve|reserves]] in southern Alberta.

This began a period of great struggle and economic hardship; the Niitsitapi had to try to adapt to a completely new way of life. They suffered a high rate of fatalities when exposed to Eurasian diseases, for which they had no natural immunity.

Eventually, they established a viable economy based on farming, ranching, and light industry. Their population has increased to about 16,000 in Canada and 15,000 in the U.S. today. With their new economic stability, the Niitsitapi have been free to adapt their culture and traditions to their new circumstances, renewing their connection to their ancient roots.

=== Early history ===
[[File:Blackfoot tipis.jpg|thumb|Blackfoot [[teepee]]s, [[Glacier National Park (U.S.)|Glacier National Park]], 1933]]

The Niitsitapi, also known as the Blackfoot or Blackfeet Indians, reside in the Great Plains of Montana and the Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan.{{Citation needed|date=November 2022}} Originally, only one of the Niitsitapi tribes was called Blackfoot or Siksika. The name is said to have come from the color of the peoples' [[moccasins]], made of leather. They had typically dyed or painted the soles of their moccasins black. One legendary story claimed that the Siksika walked through ashes of prairie fires, which in turn colored the bottoms of their moccasins black.{{Citation needed|date=November 2022}}

[[File:Kainai travois.jpg|thumb|Kainai (Blood) women with travois.]]
Due to language and cultural patterns, [[anthropologists]] believe the Niitsitapi did not originate in the Great Plains of the Midwest North America, but migrated from the upper Northeastern part of the country. They coalesced as a group while living in the forests of what is now the Northeastern United States. They were mostly located around the modern-day border between Canada and the state of Maine. By 1200, the Niitsitapi were moving in search of more land.{{Citation needed|date=January 2012}} They moved west and settled for a while north of the [[Great Lakes]] in present-day Canada, but had to compete for resources with existing tribes. They left the Great Lakes area and kept moving west.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Grinnel|first=George Bird|title=Early Blackfoot History|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/i227087|access-date=2020-07-30|journal=American Anthropologist |year=1892|volume=5|issue=2|pages=153–164|publisher=American Anthropological Association, Wiley|jstor=658663}}</ref>

When they moved, they usually packed their belongings on an A-shaped sled called a ''[[travois]].'' The travois was designed for transport over dry land.<ref>Gibson, ''The Blackfeet People of the Dark Moccasins'', 1</ref> The Blackfoot had relied on dogs to pull the ''travois''; they did not acquire horses until the 18th century. From the Great Lakes area, they continued to move west and eventually settled in the Great Plains.

The Plains had covered approximately {{convert|780000|sqmi|km2}} with the [[Saskatchewan River]] to the north, the [[Rio Grande]] to the south, the [[Mississippi River]] to the east, and the [[Rocky Mountains]] to the west.<ref name="taylor9">Taylor, 9.</ref>  Adopting the use of the horse, the Niitsitapi established themselves as one of the most powerful Indian tribes on the Plains in the late 18th century, earning themselves the name "The Lords of the Plains."<ref>{{cite journal |first=Alex |last=Johnston |s2cid=19795696 |title=Blackfoot Indian Utilization of the Flora of the Northwestern Great Plains |journal= Economic Botany |volume=24| issue =  3 |date=Jul–Sep 1970|pages= 301–324 |doi=10.1007/bf02860666 |jstor=4253161|doi-access=free }}</ref> Niitsitapi stories trace their residence and possession of their plains territory to "time immemorial."

=== Importance and uses of bison ===
[[File:BuffaloHunters.jpg|thumb|Bison hunters with wolf skin disguises.]]
[[File:Alfred Jacob Miller - Hunting Buffalo - Walters 371940190.jpg|thumb|Depiction of Bison being driven over a "buffalo jump".]]
The Niitsitapi main source of food on the plains was the [[American bison]] (buffalo), the largest mammal in North America, standing about {{convert|6+1/2|ft|m}} tall and weighing up to {{convert|2000|lbs}}.<ref name="David Murdoch 1937">David Murdoch, "North American Indian", eds. Marion Dent and others, Vol. ''Eyewitness Books''(Dorling Kindersley Limited, London: Alfred A.Knopf, Inc., 1937), 28–29.</ref> Before the introduction of horses, the Niitsitapi needed other ways to get in range. The [[buffalo jump]] was one of the most common ways. The hunters would round up the buffalo into V-shaped pens, and drive them over a cliff (they hunted [[pronghorn]] antelopes in the same way). Afterwards the hunters would go to the bottom and take as much meat as they could carry back to camp. They also used camouflage for hunting.<ref name="David Murdoch 1937" /> The hunters would take buffalo skins from previous hunting trips and drape them over their bodies to blend in and mask their scent. By subtle moves, the hunters could get close to the herd. When close enough, the hunters would attack with arrows or spears to kill wounded animals.

The people used virtually all parts of the body and skin. The women prepared the meat for food: by boiling, roasting or drying for [[jerky]]. This processed it to last a long time without spoiling, and they depended on bison meat to get through the winters.<ref>Gibson, 14</ref> The winters were long, harsh, and cold due to the lack of trees in the Plains, so people stockpiled meat in summer.<ref>Taylor, 2</ref> As a ritual, hunters often ate the bison heart minutes after the kill. The women tanned and prepared the skins to cover the tepees. These were made of log poles, with the skins draped over it. The tepee remained warm in the winter and cool in the summer, and was a great shield against the wind.<ref>{{cite journal|last=West|first=Helen B.|date=Autumn 1960|title=Blackfoot Country|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/i405881|access-date=2020-07-30|journal=Montana: The Magazine of Western History|pages=34–44|jstor=4516437|volume=10|issue=4}}</ref>

The women also made clothing from the skins, such as robes and moccasins, and made soap from the fat. Both men and women made utensils, sewing needles and tools from the bones, using tendon for fastening and binding. The stomach and bladder were cleaned and prepared for use for storing liquids. Dried bison dung was fuel for the fires. The Niitsitapi considered the animal sacred and integral to their lives.<ref>Gibson, 15</ref>

=== Discovery and uses of horses ===
[[File:Bodmer -- Blackfoot Indian, 1840-1843.jpg|thumb|Mounted Blackfoot warrior on horse painted from life by [[Karl Bodmer]].]]
Up until around 1730, the Blackfoot traveled by foot and used dogs to carry and pull some of their goods. They had not seen horses in their previous lands, but were introduced to them on the Plains, as other tribes, such as the [[Shoshone]], had already adopted their use.<ref name="ReferenceA">Grinnell, ''Early Blackfoot History,'' pp. 153–164</ref> They saw the advantages of horses and wanted some. The Blackfoot called the horses ''ponokamita'' (elk dogs).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baldwin|first=Stuart J.|date=Jan 1994|title=Blackfoot Neologisms|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/i254177|access-date=2020-07-30|journal=International Journal of American Linguistics|pages=69–72|jstor=1265481|volume=60|issue=1|doi=10.1086/466218|s2cid=224808614}}</ref> The horses could carry much more weight than dogs and moved at a greater speed. They could be ridden for hunting and travel.<ref name="Murdoch, North American Indian, 28">Murdoch, ''North American Indian,'' p. 28</ref>

[[File:Three chiefs Piegan p.39-2.jpg|thumb|Three mounted Piegan chiefs on the prairie. Photographed by [[Edward S. Curtis]].]]
Horses revolutionised life on the Great Plains and soon came to be regarded as a measure of wealth. Warriors regularly raided other tribes for their best horses. Horses were generally used as universal standards of barter. [[Medicine Man|Medicine men]] were paid for cures and healing with horses. Those who designed shields or war bonnets were also paid in horses.<ref>Taylor, 4</ref> The men gave horses to those who were owed gifts as well as to the needy. An individual's wealth rose with the number of horses accumulated, but a man did not keep an abundance of them. The individual's prestige and status was judged by the number of horses that he could give away. For the Indians who lived on the Plains, the principal value of property was to share it with others.<ref>Royal B. Hassrick, ''The Colorful Story of North American Indians,'' Vol. Octopus Books, Limited (Hong Kong: Mandarin Publishers Limited, 1974), 77.</ref>

[[File:Blackfoot warriors, Macleod, Alberta (HS85-10-18724).jpg|thumb|Blackfoot warriors at Fort MacLeod, 1907]]
After driving the hostile Shoshone and [[Arapaho people|Arapaho]] from the Northwestern Plains, the Niitsitapi began in 1800 a long phase of keen competition in the fur trade with their former Cree allies, which often escalated militarily. In addition both groups had adapted to using horses about 1730, so by mid-century an adequate supply of horses became a question of survival. Horse theft was at this stage not only a proof of courage, but often a desperate contribution to survival, for many ethnic groups competed for hunting in the grasslands.

The Cree and Assiniboine continued horse raiding against the Gros Ventre (in Cree: ''Pawistiko Iyiniwak'' – "Rapids People" – "People of the Rapids"), allies of the Niitsitapi. The Gros Ventres were also known as ''Niya Wati Inew'', ''Naywattamee'' ("They Live in Holes People"), because their tribal lands were along the [[Saskatchewan River Forks]] (the confluence of North and South Saskatchewan River). They had to withstand attacks of enemies with guns. In retaliation for [[Hudson's Bay Company]] (HBC) supplying their enemies with weapons, the Gros Ventre attacked and burned in 1793 [[South Branch House]] of the HBC on the South Saskatchewan River near the present village of [[St. Louis, Saskatchewan]]. Then, the tribe moved southward to the [[Milk River (Alberta–Montana)|Milk River]] in Montana and allied themselves with the Blackfoot. The area between the North Saskatchewan River and [[Battle River]] (the name derives from the war fought between these two tribal groups) was the limit of the now warring tribal alliances.<ref>Bruce Vandervort: ''Indian Wars of Canada, Mexico, and the United States 1812–1900.''Taylor & Francis, 2005, {{ISBN|978-0-415-22472-7}}</ref>

=== Enemies and warrior culture ===
[[File:CM Russell When Blackfoot And Sioux Meet.jpeg|thumb| ''When Blackfoot and Sioux Meet'' by western artist [[Charles Marion Russell]].]]
[[File:The Death of Omoxesisixany or Big Snake.jpg|thumb|''The Death of Omoxesisixany or Big Snake'' by [[Paul Kane]], depicting a battle between a Blackfoot and Plains Cree warrior on horseback.]]
Blackfoot war parties would ride hundreds of miles on raids. A boy on his first war party was given a silly or derogatory name. But after he had stolen his first horse or killed an enemy, he was given a name to honor him. Warriors would strive to perform various acts of bravery called [[counting coup]], in order to move up in social rank. The coups in order of importance were: taking a gun from a living enemy and or touching him directly; capturing lances, and bows; scalping an enemy; killing an enemy; freeing a tied horse from in front of an enemy lodge; leading a war party; scouting for a war party; stealing headdresses, shields, pipes (sacred ceremonial pipes); and driving a herd of stolen horses back to camp.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hungrywolf|first=Adolf|title=The Blackfoot Papers|year=2006|publisher=The Good Medicine Cultural Foundation|location=Skookumchuck, British Columbia|isbn=0-920698-80-8|page=233|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sGtsbTEtcRIC&pg=PA233|access-date=6 March 2013}}</ref>
[[File:Blackfeet Burning Crow Buffalo Range.jpg|right|thumb|''Blackfeet Burning Crow Buffalo Range'' by [[Charles Marion Russell]].]]
The Niitsitapi were enemies of the [[Crow Nation|Crow]], [[Cheyenne]] (''kiihtsipimiitapi'' – ″Pinto People″), and [[Sioux]] (Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota) (called ''pinaapisinaa'' – "East Cree") on the Great Plains; and the [[Shoshone]], [[Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes of the Flathead Nation|Flathead]], [[Pend d'Oreilles (tribe)|Kalispel]], [[Ktunaxa|Kootenai]] (called ''kotonáá'wa'') and [[Nez Perce people|Nez Perce]] (called ''komonóítapiikoan'') in the mountain country to their west and southwest. Their most mighty and most dangerous enemy, however, were the political/military/trading alliance of the [[Iron Confederacy]] or ''Nehiyaw-Pwat'' (in [[Plains Cree language|Plains Cree]]: ''Nehiyaw'' – 'Cree' and ''Pwat'' or ''Pwat-sak'' – 'Sioux, i.e. Assiniboine') – named after the dominating [[Cree|Plains Cree]] (called ''Asinaa'') and [[Assiniboine people|Assiniboine]] (called ''Niitsísinaa'' – "Original Cree"). These included the [[Nakoda (Stoney)|Stoney]] (called ''Saahsáísso'kitaki'' or ''Sahsi-sokitaki'' – ″Sarcee trying to cut″),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.angelfire.com/ar/waakomimm/lang13.html |title=Names for Peoples/Tribes |publisher=Angelfire.com |access-date=16 December 2013}}</ref> [[Saulteaux]] (or [[Plains Ojibwe]]), and [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]] to the north, east and southeast.

With the expansion of the ''Nehiyaw-Pwat'' to the north, west and southwest, they integrated larger groups of [[Iroquois]], [[Chipewyan]], [[Danezaa people|Danezaa]] (''Dunneza'' – 'The real (prototypical) people'),<ref>the Cree called them ''Amiskiwiyiniw'' or ''Amisk Wiyiniwak'' and the [[Dakelh]] ''Tsat'en'', ''Tsattine'' or ''Tza Tinne'' –  both mean 'Beaver People', so they were formerly often referred in English as ''Beaver''</ref> Ktunaxa, Flathead, and later [[Gros Ventre people|Gros Ventre]] (called ''atsíína'' – "Gut People" or "like a Cree"), in their local groups. Loosely allied with the ''Nehiyaw-Pwat'', but politically independent, were neighboring tribes like the [[Ktunaxa]], [[Secwepemc]] and in particular the arch enemy of the Blackfoot, the Crow, or Indian trading partners like the Nez Perce and Flathead.<ref>Joachim Fromhold: ''The Western Cree (Pakisimotan Wi Iniwak)''</ref>

The Shoshone acquired horses much sooner than the Blackfoot and soon occupied much of present-day Alberta, most of Montana, and parts of Wyoming, and raided the Blackfoot frequently.  Once the Piegan gained access to horses of their own and guns, obtained from the HBC via the Cree and Assiniboine, the situation changed.  By 1787 David Thompson reports that the Blackfoot had completely conquered most of Shoshone territory, and frequently captured Shoshone women and children and forcibly assimilated them into Blackfoot society, further increasing their advantages over the Shoshone.  Thompson reports that Blackfoot territory in 1787 was from the North Saskatchewan River in the north to the Missouri River in the South, and from Rocky Mountains in the west out to a distance of {{convert|300|mi}} to the east.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://segonku.unl.edu/~ahodge/aftermath.html |author=A. Hodge |title=Beyond Borderlands: Discussion: Aftermath |publisher=University of Nebraska Lincoln |access-date=16 December 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101124041/http://segonku.unl.edu/~ahodge/aftermath.html |archive-date=1 November 2013 }}</ref>

Between 1790 and 1850, the ''Nehiyaw-Pwat'' were at the height of their power; they could successfully defend their territories against the Sioux (Lakota, Nakota and Dakota) and the Niitsitapi Confederacy. During the so-called Buffalo Wars (about 1850 – 1870), they penetrated further and further into the territory from the Niitsitapi Confederacy in search for the buffalo, so that the Piegan were forced to give way in the region of the Missouri River (in Cree: ''Pikano Sipi'' – "Muddy River", "Muddy, turbid River"), the Kainai withdrew to the [[Bow River]] and [[Belly River]]; only the Siksika could hold their tribal lands along the [[Red Deer River]]. Around 1870, the alliance between the Blackfoot and the Gros Ventre broke, and the latter began to look to their former enemies, the Southern Assiniboine (or Plains Assiniboine), for protection.

=== First contact with Europeans and the fur trade ===
[[Anthony Henday]] of the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] (HBC) met a large Blackfoot group in 1754 in what is now [[Alberta]]. The Blackfoot had established dealings with traders connected to the Canadian and English fur trade before meeting the [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]] in 1806.<ref name = Ambrose /> Lewis and Clark and their men had embarked on mapping the Louisiana Territory and upper [[Missouri River]] for the [[United States government]].

On their return trip from the Pacific Coast, Lewis and three of his men encountered a group of young Blackfoot warriors with a large herd of horses, and it was clear to [[Meriwether Lewis]] that they were not far from much larger groups of warriors. Lewis explained to them that the United States government wanted peace with all Indian nations,<ref>Gibson, 23</ref> and that the US leaders had successfully formed alliances with other Indian nations.<ref name = Ambrose >{{cite book|title=Undaunted Courage|author=Ambrose, Stephen|page=389}}</ref>  The group camped together that night, and at dawn there was a scuffle as it was discovered that the Blackfoot were trying to steal guns and run off with their horses while the Americans slept.  In the ensuing struggle, one warrior was fatally stabbed and another shot by Lewis and presumed killed.<ref name="Gibson, 23-29">Gibson, 23–29</ref>

In subsequent years, American [[Mountain man|mountain men]] trapping in Blackfoot country generally encountered hostility.  When [[John Colter]], a member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, returned to Blackfoot country soon after, he barely escaped with his life. In 1809, Colter and his companion were trapping on the Jefferson River by canoe when they were surrounded by hundreds of Blackfoot warriors on horseback on both sides of the river bank.  Colter's companion, John Potts, did not surrender and was killed.  Colter was stripped of his clothes and forced to run for his life, after being given a head start (famously known in the annals of the West as "Colter's Run.") He eventually escaped by reaching a river five miles away and diving under either an island of [[driftwood]] or a [[beaver dam]], where he remained concealed until after nightfall. He trekked another 300 miles to a fort.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mman.us/coltersescape.htm|title=Both versions of Colter's Run}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lewis-clark.org/content/content-article.asp?ArticleID=2616|title=Colter the Mountain Man|publisher=Lewis-Clark.org|access-date=24 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120925015401/http://www.lewis-clark.org/content/content-article.asp?ArticleID=2616|archive-date=25 September 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:George Catlin - Buffalo Bulls Back Fat - Smithsonian.jpg|thumb|[[Buffalo Bull's Back Fat]], Head Chief, of the Blood Tribe by [[George Catlin]].]]
In the context of shifting tribal politics due to the spread of horses and guns, the Niitsitapi initially tried to increase their trade with the HBC traders in [[Rupert's Land]] whilst blocking access to the HBC by neighboring peoples to the West. But the HBC trade eventually reached into what is now inland British Columbia.

<blockquote>By the late 1820s, [this prompted] the Niitsitapiksi, and in particular the Piikani, whose territory was rich in beaver, [to] temporarily put aside cultural prohibitions and environmental constraints to trap enormous numbers of these animals and, in turn, receive greater quantities of trade items.<ref>Brown, 2</ref></blockquote>

[[File:Mehkskeme-Sukahs cropped.jpg|thumb|''Mehkskeme-Sukahs'', Blackfoot chief (c. 1840).]]
The HBC encouraged Niitsitapiksi to trade by setting up posts on the [[North Saskatchewan River]], on the northern boundary of their territory. In the 1830s the Rocky Mountain region and the wider Saskatchewan District were the HBC's most profitable, and [[Rocky Mountain House]] was the HBC's busiest post. It was primarily used by the Piikani. Other Niitsitapiksi nations traded more in pemmican and buffalo skins than beaver, and visited other posts such as [[Fort Edmonton]].<ref>Brown, 3</ref>

Meanwhile, in 1822, the [[American Fur Company]] entered the Upper Missouri region from the south for the first time, without Niitsitapiksi permission. This led to tensions and conflict until 1830, when peaceful trade was established. This was followed by the opening of Fort Piegan as the first American trading post in Niitsitapi territory in 1831, joined by [[Fort MacKenzie]] in 1833. The Americans offered better terms of trade and were more interested in buffalo skins than the HBC, which brought them more trade from the Niitsitapi. The HBC responded by building Bow Fort (Peigan Post) on the [[Bow River]] in 1832, but it was not a success.<ref>Brown, 4–5</ref>

In 1833, German explorer [[Prince Maximilian of Wied-Neuwied]] and Swiss painter [[Karl Bodmer]] spent months with the Niitsitapi to get a sense of their culture. Bodmer portrayed their society in paintings and drawings.<ref name="Gibson, 23-29"/>

Contact with the Europeans caused a spread of [[infectious diseases]] to the Niitsitapi, mostly [[cholera]] and [[smallpox]].<ref>Taylor, 43</ref> In one instance in 1837, an [[American Fur Company]] steamboat, the ''St. Peter's'', was headed to [[Fort Union National Monument|Fort Union]] and several passengers contracted smallpox on the way. They continued to send a smaller vessel with supplies farther up the river to posts among the Niitsitapi. The Niitsitapi contracted the disease and eventually 6,000 died, marking an end to their dominance among tribes over the Plains. The [[Hudson's Bay Company]] did not require or help their employees get vaccinated; the English doctor [[Edward Jenner]] had developed a technique 41 years before but its use was not yet widespread.<ref>{{cite book |last=Frazier|first=Ian|title=Great Plains |edition=1st|location=Toronto, Ontario, Canada|publisher=Collins Publishers|year=1989|pages=50–52}}</ref>

===Indian Wars===
[[File:Single-Handed, Charles Marion Russell 1912.jpg|thumb|''Single-Handed'', [[Charles Marion Russell]] 1912. The painting shows a North-West Mounted Police officer attempting to arrest a defiant warrior at a Blood camp, probably in Alberta or Saskatchewan.]]
[[File:Winnipeg Jack 1890.jpg|thumb|Dog Child (''Winnipeg Jack''), a Blackfoot scout and interpreter for the NWMP.]]
Like many other Great Plains Indian nations, the Niitsitapi often had hostile relationships with white settlers. Despite the hostilities, the Blackfoot stayed largely out of the Great Plains Indian Wars, neither fighting against nor scouting for the United States army. One of their friendly bands, however, was attacked by mistake and nearly destroyed by the US Army in the [[Marias Massacre]] on 23 January 1870, undertaken as an action to suppress violence against settlers. A friendly relationship with the [[North-West Mounted Police]] and learning of the brutality of the Marias Massacre discouraged the Blackfoot from engaging in wars against Canada and the United States.

When the [[Lakota people|Lakota]], together with their [[Cheyenne people|Cheyenne]] and [[Arapaho]] allies, were fighting the United States Army, they sent runners into Blackfoot territory, urging them to join the fight. [[Crowfoot]], one of the most influential Blackfoot chiefs, dismissed the Lakota messengers. He threatened to ally with the NWMP to fight them if they came north into Blackfoot country again. News of Crowfoot's loyalty reached [[Ottawa]] and from there [[London]]; [[Queen Victoria]] praised Crowfoot and the Blackfoot for their loyalty.<ref>Dempsey, H. A. (1972). ''Crowfoot, Chief of the Blackfoot,'' (1st ed.). Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, P. 88-89</ref> Despite his threats, Crowfoot later met those Lakota who had fled with [[Sitting Bull]] into Canada after defeating [[George Armstrong Custer]] and his battalion at the [[Battle of Little Big Horn]]. Crowfoot considered the Lakota then to be refugees and was sympathetic to their strife, but retained his anti-war stance. Sitting Bull and Crowfoot fostered peace between the two nations by a ceremonial offering of tobacco, ending hostilities between them. Sitting Bull was so impressed by Crowfoot that he named one of his sons after him.<ref>Dempsey (1972). ''Crowfoot'', p. 91</ref>

The Blackfoot also chose to stay out of the [[North-West Rebellion]], led by the famous [[Métis]] leader [[Louis Riel]]. Louis Riel and his men added to the already unsettled conditions facing the Blackfoot by camping near them. They tried to spread discontent with the government and gain a powerful ally. The North-West Rebellion was made up mostly of Métis, [[Assiniboine people|Assiniboine]] (Nakota) and [[Cree|Plains Cree]], who all fought against European encroachment and destruction of Bison herds. The Plains Cree were one of the Blackfoot's most hated enemies; however, the two nations made peace when Crowfoot adopted [[Poundmaker]], an influential Cree chief and great peacemaker, as his son. Although he refused to fight, Crowfoot had sympathy for those with the rebellion, especially the Cree led by such notable chiefs as Poundmaker, [[Big Bear]], [[Wandering Spirit (Cree leader)|Wandering Spirit]] and [[Fine-Day]].<ref name="Dempsey 1972 pp. 188-192">Dempsey (1972), ''Crowfoot'', pp. 188–192</ref>

When news of continued Blackfoot neutrality reached Ottawa, [[Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne|Lord Lansdowne]], the governor general, expressed his thanks to Crowfoot again on behalf of the Queen back in London. The cabinet of [[John A. Macdonald]] (the current [[Prime Minister of Canada]] at the time) gave Crowfoot a round of applause.<ref name="Dempsey 1972 pp. 188-192"/>

=== Further encroachment by Canada and United States ===
[[File:Chief Mountain, Blackfeet.jpg|thumb|Colorized photograph of chief [[Mountain Chief]]]]

During the mid-1800s, the Niitsitapi faced a dwindling food supply, as European-American hunters were hired by the U.S. government to kill bison so the Blackfeet would remain in their reservation. Settlers were also encroaching on their territory. Without the buffalo, the Niitsitapi were forced to depend on the United States government for food supplies.<ref>Murdoch, ''North American Indian'', 34</ref> In 1855, the Niitsitapi chief Lame Bull made a peace treaty with the United States government. The Lame Bull Treaty promised the Niitsitapi $20,000 annually in goods and services in exchange for their moving onto a reservation.<ref>Gibson, 26</ref>

In 1860, very few buffalo were left, and the Niitsitapi became completely dependent on government supplies. Often the food was spoiled by the time they received it, or supplies failed to arrive at all. Hungry and desperate, Blackfoot raided white settlements for food and supplies, and outlaws on both sides stirred up trouble.{{Clarification needed|reason=what kind of outlaw, what kind of trouble|date=June 2023}}

Events were catalyzed by Owl Child, a young Piegan warrior who stole a herd of horses in 1867 from an American trader named Malcolm Clarke. Clarke retaliated by tracking Owl Child down and severely beating him in full view of Owl Child's camp, and humiliating him. According to Piegan oral history, Clarke had also raped Owl Child's wife. But, Clarke was long married to Coth-co-co-na, a Piegan woman who was Owl Child's cousin.<ref>[http://blackfootdigitallibrary.com/en/asset/joe-upham-tells-story-bakers-massacre Joe Upham (descendant of Heavy Runner) tells the story of the Bakers Massacre] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021185238/http://blackfootdigitallibrary.com/en/asset/joe-upham-tells-story-bakers-massacre |date=21 October 2014 }}, Blackfoot Digital Library, accessed 6 February 2011</ref> The raped woman gave birth to a child as a result of the rape, which oral history said was stillborn or killed by band elders.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blackfootdigitallibrary.org/|title=Welcome – Oki – Blackfoot Digital Library|access-date=9 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110621010914/http://www.blackfootdigitallibrary.org/|archive-date=21 June 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> Two years after the beating, in 1869 Owl Child and some associates killed Clarke at his ranch after dinner, and severely wounded his son Horace. Public outcry from news of the event led to General [[Philip Sheridan]] to dispatch a band of cavalry, led by Major Eugene Baker, to find Owl Child and his camp and punish them.
[[File:Frances Densmore recording Mountain Chief2.jpg|thumb|[[Frances Densmore]] plays a recording for chief [[Mountain Chief]] for the [[Bureau of American Ethnology]] in 1916.]]

On 23 January 1870, a camp of Piegan Indians were spotted by army scouts and reported to the dispatched cavalry, but it was mistakenly identified as a hostile band. Around 200 soldiers surrounded the camp the following morning and prepared for an ambush. Before the command to fire, the chief Heavy Runner was alerted to soldiers on the snowy bluffs above the encampment. He walked toward them, carrying his safe-conduct paper. Heavy Runner and his band of Piegans shared peace between American settlers and troops at the time of the event. Heavy Runner was shot and killed by army scout Joe Cobell, whose wife was part of the camp of the hostile [[Mountain Chief]], further along the river, from whom he wanted to divert attention.  Fellow scout Joe Kipp had realized the error and tried to signal the troops. He was threatened by the cavalry for reporting that the people they attacked were friendly.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Marias Massacre|url=http://www.legendsofamerica.com/na-mariasmassacre.html|work=Legend of America|access-date=21 May 2013}}</ref>

Following the death of Heavy Runner, the soldiers attacked the camp. According to their count, they killed 173 Piegan and suffered just one U.S. Army soldier casualty, who fell off his horse and broke his leg, dying of complications. Most of the victims were women, children and the elderly, as most of the younger men were out hunting. The Army took 140 Piegan prisoner and then released them. With their camp and belongings destroyed, they suffered terribly from exposure, making their way as refugees to [[Fort Benton, Montana|Fort Benton]].

{{blockquote|The greatest slaughter of Indians ever made by U.S. Troops|Lieutenant [[Gus Doane]], commander of F Company}}

As reports of the massacre gradually were learned in the east, members of the [[United States Congress]] and press were outraged. General [[William Tecumseh Sherman]] reported that most of the killed were warriors under Mountain Chief. An official investigation never occurred, and no official monument marks the spot of the massacre. Compared to events such as the massacres at [[Wounded Knee Massacre|Wounded Knee]] and [[Sand Creek Massacre|Sand Creek]], the Marias Massacre remains largely unknown. But, it confirmed President [[Ulysses S. Grant]] in his decision not to allow the Army to take over the Bureau of Indian Affairs, as it had been suggesting to combat corruption among Indian agents. Grant chose to appoint numerous Quakers to those positions as he pursued a peace policy with Native Americans.

The Cree and Assiniboine also suffered from the dwindling herds of the buffalo. By 1850 herds were found almost exclusively on the territory of the Blackfoot. Therefore, in 1870 various ''Nehiyaw-Pwat'' bands began a final effort to get hold of their prey, by beginning a war. They hoped to defeat the Blackfoot weakened by smallpox and attacked a camp near [[Fort Whoop-Up]] (called ''Akaisakoyi'' – "Many Dead"). But they were defeated in the so-called [[Battle of the Belly River]] (near [[Lethbridge]], called ''Assini-etomochi'' – "where we slaughtered the Cree") and lost over 300 warriors. The next winter the hunger compelled them to negotiate with the Niitsitapi, with whom they made a final lasting peace.

The United States passed laws that adversely affected the Niitsitapi. In 1874, the US Congress voted to change the Niitsitapi reservation borders without discussing it with the Niitsitapi. They received no other land or compensation for the land lost, and in response, the Kainai, Siksika, and Piegan moved to Canada; only the Pikuni remained in Montana.<ref>Murdoch, ''North American Indian,'' 28–29</ref>

The winter of 1883–1884 became known as "Starvation Winter" because no government supplies came in, and the buffalo were gone. That winter, 600 Niitsitapi died of hunger.<ref>Gibson, 27–28</ref>

In efforts to [[Cultural assimilation of Native Americans|assimilate]] the Native Americans to European-American ways, in 1898, the government dismantled tribal governments and outlawed the practice of traditional Indian religions. They required Blackfoot children to go to [[American Indian boarding schools|boarding schools]], where they were forbidden to speak their native language, practise customs, or wear traditional clothing.<ref name="Gibson, 31-42">Gibson, 31–42</ref> In 1907, the United States government adopted a policy of allotment of reservation land to individual heads of families to encourage family farming and break up the communal tribal lands. Each household received a {{convert|160|acre|ha|adj=on}} farm, and the government declared the remainder "surplus" to the tribe's needs. It put it up for sale for development.<ref name="Gibson, 31-42" /> The allotments were too small to support farming on the arid plains. A 1919 drought destroyed crops and increased the cost of beef. Many Indians were forced to sell their allotted land and pay taxes which the government said they owed.<ref name="Murdoch, North American Indian, 29">Murdoch, ''North American Indian,'' 29</ref>

In 1934 the [[Indian Reorganization Act]], passed by the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration, ended allotments and allowed the tribes to choose their own government. They were also allowed to practise their cultures.<ref name="Murdoch, North American Indian, 29" /> In 1935, the [[Blackfeet Indian Reservation|Blackfeet Nation]] of Montana began a Tribal Business Council. After that, they wrote and passed their own Constitution, with an elected representative government.<ref name="Gibson, 35-42">Gibson, 35–42</ref>