Editing Birka (section)

== Written accounts ==
Sources from Birka are mainly archaeological remains. No texts survive from this area, though the written text ''[[Vita Ansgari]]'' ("The Life of Ansgar") by [[Rimbert]] (c. 865) describes the missionary work of [[Ansgar]] around 830 at Birka, and ''[[Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum|Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum]]'' (Deeds of Bishops of the Hamburg Church) by [[Adam of Bremen]] in 1075 describes the [[Archbishop]] Unni, who died at Birka in 936.<!--The majority of sources I was able to consult, including Britannica, speak about the first settlement of any size from ca. 800. Perhaps this should be reflected in text of the article.--> Saint Ansgar's work was the first attempt to convert the people of Birka from [[Norse Mythology|the Norse religion]] to Christianity. It was unsuccessful.

Both Rimbert and Adam were German clergymen writing in [[Latin]]. There are no known [[Old Norse language|Norse]] sources mentioning the name of the settlement, or even the settlement itself, and the original Norse name of Birka is unknown. ''Birca'' is the [[Romanization|Latinised]] form given in the written sources by Rimbert and Adam; and ''Birka'' is the contemporary, unhistorical Swedish form. The Latin name is probably derived from an [[Old Norse]] word "[[birk (market place)|birk]]" which probably means a market place. Related to this was the ''Bjärköa law'' ([[bjärköarätt]]) which regulated the life of market places in [[Denmark]], [[Norway]] and Sweden. Birka and similar spellings are very common in Scandinavian place names still today leading to speculation that all references to Birka, especially those by Adam of Bremen, were not about the same location.

Both publications are silent on Birka's size, layout, and appearance. Based on Rimbert's account, Birka was significant because it had a port and it was the location of the regional [[Thing (assembly)|ting]]. Adam only mentions the port, but otherwise, Birka seems to have been significant to him because it was the start of Ansgar's Christian mission and because Archbishop Unni was buried there.

''Vita Ansgari'' and ''Gesta'' are sometimes ambiguous, which has caused some controversy as to whether Birka and the Björkö settlement are the same location. Many other locations have been suggested through the years.<ref>Some of them being [[Linköping]], [[Köpingsvik]] and even [[Saltvik]] in [[Åland]].</ref> However, Björkö is the only location that shows remains of a town of Birka's significance, which is why the vast majority of scholars regard Björkö as the location of Birka.<ref>Harrison, Dick, ''Sveriges historia – medeltiden'' (Falköping, 2002), p. 51</ref>

Birka was abandoned during the latter half of the 10th century. Based on the dating of the coins, the city seems to have died out around 960.<ref>Lindqvist, Herman. ''Historien om Sverige. Islossning till kungarike''. 1996. See page 165.</ref> Roughly around the same time, the nearby settlement of [[Sigtuna]] supplanted Birka as the main trading center in the [[Mälaren]] area.<ref name="Concise">{{cite book|title=A Concise History of Sweden|last=Kent|first=Neil|date=12 June 2008|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-01227-0|location=[[United Kingdom]]|pages=9}}<!--| access-date=2008-08-27 --></ref> The reasons for Birka's decline are disputed. The Baltic island of [[Gotland]] was also in a better strategic position for [[Dnieper trade route|Rus'-Byzantine trade]] and was gaining eminence as a mercantile stronghold.<ref name="Concise" /><ref>2006 ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Article "Birka".</ref> Historian Neil Kent has speculated that the area may have been the victim of an enemy assault.<ref name="Concise" />

The [[Varangian]] trade stations in [[Russia]] suffered a serious decline at roughly the same date.

===Rimbert's description===
In ''[[Vita Ansgari]]'' ("The life of Ansgar")<ref>[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/anskar.html Vita Ansgarii] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108030836/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/anskar.html |date=8 November 2014 }}. Translation in English.</ref> monk and later [[Archbishopric of Bremen|archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen]] [[Rimbert]] gives the first known description of Birka. The town was the center of Catholic missionary activities in the 9th century Sweden. Rimbert's interests were in the Christian faith, not so much in the Swedish geopolicy, so his descriptions of Birka remain approximate at best.

====Bridgehead of Christian missionaries====
This is how it all started in 829:

<blockquote>Meanwhile it happened that Swedish ambassadors had come to the Emperor [[Louis the Pious]], and, amongst other matters which they had been ordered to bring to the attention of the emperor, they informed him that there were many belonging to their nation who desired to embrace the Christian religion, and that their king so far favoured this suggestion that he would permit God's priests to reside there, provided that they might be deemed worthy of such a favour and that the emperor would send them suitable preachers. (Chapter IX)</blockquote>

<blockquote>[[Ansgar]] then undertook the mission committed to him by the emperor, who desired that he should go to the Swedes and discover whether this people was prepared to accept the faith as their messengers had declared. (Chapter X)</blockquote>

Ansgar was already experienced in the missionary work in [[Denmark]], and set forth to Sweden. Rimbert describes the trip very generally:

<blockquote>It may suffice for me to say that while they were in the midst of their journey they fell into the hands of pirates. The merchants with whom they were travelling, defended themselves vigorously and for a time successfully, but eventually they were conquered and overcome by the pirates, who took from them their ships and all that they possessed, whilst they themselves barely escaped on. foot to land. —With great difficulty they accomplished their long journey on foot, traversing also the intervening seas (maria), where it was possible, by ship, and eventually arrived at the Swedish port called Birka. (Chapters X and XI)</blockquote>

Rimbert does not say where Ansgar sailed off or where he landed. Noteworthy is just his note about several "seas" that they had to cross to get to Birka from the place they had landed to. Since Rimbert mentions them to have crossed the seas by ship "where it was possible" they clearly had the alternative of going around them as well, meaning that the seas were probably the numerous lakes in southern Sweden. When Ansgar again travelled to Birka from Germany about 852, it went easier:

<blockquote>Ansgar accomplished the journey on which he had set out, and after spending nearly twenty days in a ship, he arrived at Birka (Chapter XXVI)</blockquote>

This might mean that he sailed off from [[Hamburg]] or [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]] instead of some port in Baltic Sea, since the later account by Adam of Bremen gives the distance of [[Scania]] and Birka to be only five days at sea.

====Kings====
Several Swedish kings of the 9th century, [[Björn at Haugi|Björn]], [[Anund Uppsale|Anund]] and [[Olof (I) of Sweden|Olof]], are all mentioned in ''Vita'' to have spent time in Birka. None of them is however said to have had his residence there, as the Swedish king and his retinue periodically moved between the [[Husby (estate)|Husby]]s, parts of the network of royal estates called [[Uppsala öd]].

King Björn met Ansgar in Birka when he arrived there in 829 (Chapter XI). Later King Olof met him there as well during his last trip in 852 (Chapter XXVI).

====Church====
Ansgar's missionary work resulted in first churches to be built in Sweden. Talking about [[Herigar]], the prefect of Birka:

<blockquote>A little later he built a church on his own ancestral property and served God with the utmost devotion. (Chapter XI)</blockquote>

Herigar's church was not far from the place where tings were held:

<blockquote>On one occasion he himself was sitting in an assembly of people, a stage having been arranged for a council on an open plain. He then summoned his servants and told them to carry him to his church. (Chapter XIX)</blockquote>

Another church was also built in Sweden, however location is left open:

<blockquote>This Gautbert, who at his consecration received the honoured name of the apostle Simeon, went to Sweden, and was honourably received by the king and the people; and he began, amidst general goodwill and approval, to build a church there (Chapter XIV)</blockquote>

The exiled Swedish King [[Anund Uppsale]] confirms that either one of the churches was in Birka itself when he ponders if Birka should be plundered:

<blockquote>"There are there," he said, "many great and powerful gods, and in former time a church was built there, and there are many Christians there who worship Christ" (Chapter XIX)</blockquote>

====Probable fortress====
[[File:Entry in a defensive wall on Birka September 2015.jpg|thumb|An entry point in a Viking-era defensive wall on Birka]]
Danes attacked Birka, accompanied with the deposed king [[Anund Uppsale|Anund]], which caused great distress in the town.

<blockquote>Being in great difficulty they fled to a neighbouring city (ad civitatem, quæ iuxta erat, confugerunt) and began to promise and offer to their gods—But inasmuch as the city was not strong and there were few to offer resistance, they sent messengers to the Danes and asked for friendship and alliance. —Hergeir, the faithful servant of the Lord, was angry with them and said, "They will lead away your wives and sons as captives, they will burn our city (urbs) and town (vicus)"<ref>The Latin word ''vicus'' which Rimbert uses about Birka can also be translated as "market place" or "village".</ref> and will destroy you with the sword (Chapter XIX)</blockquote>

As the neighbouring "city" is not mentioned in any other context than during the Danish attack as a place where people took refuge, it probably meant a nearby fortress. Eventually Danes left, sparing Birka from destruction.

====''Ting'' assembly====
When Ansgar asked if King [[Olof (I) of Sweden|Olof]]<ref>Scandinavian sources omit King Olof from the list of kings that reigned in [[Uppsala]].</ref> would permit him to establish the Christian religion in the kingdom during his second visit in 852, the king said to him:

<blockquote>On this account I have not the power, nor do I dare, to approve the objects of your mission until I can consult our gods by the casting of lots and until I can enquire the will of the people in regard to this matter. Let your messenger attend with me the next assembly (Chapter XXVI)</blockquote>

<blockquote>When the day for the assembly which was held in the town of Birka drew near, in accordance with their national custom the king caused a proclamation to be made to the people by the voice of a herald, in order that they might be informed concerning the object of their mission. —The king then rose up from amongst the assembly and forthwith directed one of his own messengers to accompany the bishop's messenger, and to tell him that the people were unanimously inclined to accept his proposal and at the same time to tell him that, whilst their action was entirely agreeable to him, he could not give his full consent until, in another assembly, which was to be held in another part of his kingdom, he could announce this resolution to the people who lived in that district. (Chapter XXVII)</blockquote>

[[Thing (assembly)|Tings]] were huge open-air events, which required plenty of space. The more important ting that king Olof talked about was probably the ''[[Thing of all Swedes|Ting of all Swedes]]'', which was held at the end of February in [[Uppsala]], during the [[Disting]]. The king was obliged to obey the common decisions made at this ting, and the most powerful man at this assembly was not the king, but the [[lawspeaker]] of [[Tiundaland]]. Locally important tings were the Westrogothic ''[[Thing of all Geats|Ting of all Geats]]'' in Skara and the Ostrogothic ''[[Lionga thing|Lionga ting]]'' in the vicinity of today's [[Linköping]].

===Adam of Bremen's description===
In ''[[Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum]]'' (Deeds of Bishops of the Hamburg Church),<ref>[http://hbar.phys.msu.su/gorm/chrons/bremen.htm Adam of Bremen, Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050207105412/http://hbar.phys.msu.su/gorm/chrons/bremen.htm |date=7 February 2005 }}, online text in Latin. Note that ''Scholias'' at the end of the text are later supplements, possibly by Adam himself or copyists. English translation of ''Gesta'' is not available in public domain, and the translation of the selected parts is by Wikipedia editors.</ref> Adam of Bremen mentions Birka many times, and the book is the main source of information on the city. After its initial release in 1075–6, ''Gesta'' was complemented with supplementary ''Scholias'' until the death of Adam in the 1080s. Birca is described as an existing city in the original version, but then as destroyed in ''Scholia 138''.

One of Adam's main sources had been the German bishop [[Adalvard|Adalvard the Younger]] of [[Sigtuna]] and later of [[Skara]] as hinted in ''Scholia 119''. He was also very familiar with Rimbert's work. Adam himself never visited Birka.

====Location and port====
Adam described Birka as a [[Geat]]ish port town and had gathered many details about it.

<blockquote>Birka is the main Geatish town ([[oppidum]] Gothorum), situated in the middle of Sweden (Suevoniae), not far (non longe) from the [[Temple at Uppsala|temple called Uppsala]] (Ubsola) which the Swedes (Sueones) held in the highest esteem when it comes to the worship of the gods; here forms an inlet of the Baltic or the Barbaric Sea a port facing north which welcomes all the wild peoples all around this sea but which is risky for those who are careless or ignorant of such places ... they have therefore blocked this inlet of the troubled sea with hidden masses of rocks along more than 100 [[Ancient Greek units of measurement|stadions]] (18 km). On this anchorage, being the best sheltered within the maritime region of Sweden (Suevoniae), all the ships belonging to Danes (Danorum) known as Norwegians (Nortmannorum) as well as to [[Slavs]] (Sclavorum), [[Sambians|Sembrians]] (Semborum) and other [[Scythians|Scythian]] (Scithiae) peoples use to convene every year for sundry necessary commerce. (I 62)</blockquote>

<blockquote>Turning from the northern parts to the mouth of the Baltic Sea we first meet the Norwegians (Nortmanni), then the Danish region of [[Skåne]] (Sconia) stands out, and beyond these live the Geats (Gothi) for a long stretch all the way to Birka. (IV 14)</blockquote>

Having described [[Västergötland]] and [[Skara]], Adam writes:

<blockquote>Beyond it [[Östergötland]] (Ostrogothia) extends along the sea, that is called the Baltic Sea, all the way to Birka. (IV 23)</blockquote>

Noteworthy in the following statement is the usage of the term "not far" (non longe) which was also used to describe the distance between Birka and the Uppsala temple:

<blockquote>Furthermore we have been told that there are many more islands in that sea, one of which is called the Great [[Estonia|Estland]] (Aestland) – And this island is told to be quite close to the Woman Land ([[Terra Feminarum|terrae feminarum]]), which<ref>Note that Adam's words "cum illa superior" may also refer to [[Courland]] discussed in Chapter IV 16 just before Estland thus meaning that Birka was not far away from Courland. Compare with Rimbert's story about an attack to Courland, ''Vita Ansgari'' Chapter XXX.</ref> is not far (non longe) away from Birka of the Swedes. (IV 17)</blockquote>

Adam also had travel instructions from Skåne to [[Sigtuna]]:

<blockquote>From Skåne (Sconia) of the Danes one reaches Sigtuna (Sictonam) or Birka after five days at sea, for they are indeed alike.<ref>The word ''iuxta'' can also be translated "close by".</ref> But by land from Skåne across the Geatish people (Gothorum populos) and cities Skara (Scaranem), Telgas and Birka, one reaches Sigtuna only after a full month. (IV 28)</blockquote>

"Telgas" is not mentioned anywhere else, and it remains as speculative as Birka. The most popular identification among many telge names in Sweden is [[Södertälje]].<ref>Assuming Birka and Björkö settlement were the same, Adam's travel instructions were latest from the 10th century when Björkö settlement still existed. Södertälje is mentioned as "Tælgia" etc in medieval sources. ''Gesta'' excluded, it is mentioned for the first time in 1281. However, it is considered possible that Södertälje was already established in the 11th century, but dating the city to be contemporary to the Björkö settlement is unlikely.</ref> ''Scholia 121'' of IV 20 tells also:

<blockquote>For those who sail from Skåne (Sconia) of the Danes to Birka, the journey takes five days, from Birka to Russia (Ruzziam) likewise five days at sea. (Scholia 121)</blockquote>

The following definition remains even more mysterious:

<blockquote>In pity of their errors, our archbishop ordained as their diocesan capital Birka, which is in the middle of Sweden (Sueoniae) facing [[Jumne]] (Iumnem), the capital of the Slavs, and equally distant from all the coasts of the surrounding sea. (IV 20)</blockquote>

Since it is physically impossible for any Swedish town to face Jumne, the latter being situated along [[Oder|River Oder]], Adam's statement is probably a misunderstanding. No place having a similar name to Birka is known to have situated on the opposite shore of Oder, so it may be possible that something similar to Jumne was located opposite to Birka.

====Bishop====
[[Archbishopric of Bremen|Archbishopric of Hamburg-Bremen]] that oversaw the missionary work in Scandinavia until 1103, had appointed bishops to Sweden at least from 1014 onwards, the first see being in [[Skara]]. Several bishops were appointed for Sweden in 1060s, one also for Birka.

<blockquote>For Sweden, six were consecrated: [[Adalvard|Adalvard the Elder]] (Adalwardum) and Acilinum, also [[Adalvard|Adalvard the Younger]] (Adalwardum) and Tadicum, and furthermore Simeon (Symeonem) and the monk John (Iohannem). (III 70)</blockquote>

''Scholia 94'' appends this as follows:

<blockquote>Adalvard the Elder (Adalwardus senior) was to superintend both lands of the Geats (uterque praefectus est Gothiae), Adalvard the Younger Sigtuna (Sictunam) and Uppsala (Ubsalam), Simeon (Symon) the [[Sami people]] (Scritefingos), John (Iohannes) the islands of the Baltic Sea. (Scholia 94)</blockquote>

Furthermore, the following was said about John's location after talking about Birka:

<blockquote>For this city he ordained, as the first among our people, the abbot Hiltin, whom he wanted to call John. (IV 20)</blockquote>

John seems to have been situated in Birka in order to prepare for the missionary work among the many heathen people that flooded to Birca from around the Baltic coasts. This was a logical continuation to Birka's position as the first missionary town in Sweden. Noteworthy here is that the biggest islands in the Baltic Sea, [[Öland]] and [[Gotland]], were part of the [[diocese of Linköping]] in the Middle Ages, covering also Östergötland and eastern [[Småland]].

====Location of Unni's tomb====
''Scholia 122'' of IV 20 locates the tomb of Hamburg's archbishop [[Unni (archbishop)|Unni]] in Birka:

<blockquote>There is the port of Saint [[Ansgar]] and the tomb of the holy Archbishop Unni, and a familiar haven, it is said, for the holy confessors of our diocese. (Scholia 122)</blockquote>

According to ''Gesta'', Unni had died in 936 (I 64).<ref>Unni's head was taken to the [[Bremen Cathedral]] where it still today is. Date 17.9.936 is written in the lead plate attached to the saint's skull. Lindqvist, Herman. ''Historien om Sverige'', 1992. {{ISBN|91-1-931502-3}}. See page 226.</ref>

====Destruction====
After having consistently described Birka as an existing city, ''Scholia 138'' of IV 29 describes Birka's sudden demise. Talking about [[Adalvard the Younger]], the bishop of Sigtuna and later that of Skara, Adam or a later copyist has written:

<blockquote>During his journey he seized the opportunity to make a detour to Birka, which is now reduced to loneliness so that one can hardly find vestiges of the city; therefore impossible to come upon the tomb of the holy Archbishop Unni. (Scholia 138)</blockquote>

The remark does not make it clear if Adalvard found the city destroyed or if that had happened after his visit and the later remark was just to warn the future pilgrims not to go there anymore in vain. As Adalvard was back in Bremen already by 1069 and is mentioned as one of Adam's sources of information, it would have been expected that word about Birka's destruction had reached also Adam before he published his work half a decade later.