Editing Berwick-upon-Tweed (section)

== History ==
[[File:Samuel and Nathaniel Buck - The South View of Berwick Upon Tweed - B1987.19 - Yale Center for British Art.jpg|thumb|400px|Berwick in 1745]]

=== Early history ===

In the post-Roman period, the area was inhabited by the [[Brython]]s of [[Bryneich]]. Later, the region became part of the [[Angles (tribe)|Anglian]] kingdom of [[Bernicia]]. Bernicia later united with the kingdom of [[Deira]] to form [[Kingdom of Northumbria|Northumbria]], which in the mid-10th century entered the [[Kingdom of England]] under [[Eadred]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kendrick |first=T. D. |author-link=T. D. Kendrick |year=2004 |title=A History of The Vikings |volume=I |location=Mineola |publisher=Dover Publications |isbn=978-0-486-43396-7 |page=256}}</ref><ref name=Cannon474>{{cite book |last=Cannon |first=John |author-link=John Cannon (historian) |year=2009 |title=A Dictionary of British History |location=London |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-955037-1 |page=474}}</ref>

Berwick remained part of the [[Earl of Northumbria|Earldom of Northumbria]] until control passed to the Scots following the [[Battle of Carham]] of 1018. The town itself was founded as an [[Anglo-Saxon]] settlement during the time of the [[Kingdom of Northumbria]].<ref name="Lepage 2011 272"/>

=== Scottish burgh ===

Between the late 10th and early 11th centuries, the land between the rivers [[River Forth|Forth]] and Tweed came under Scottish control, either through conquest by Scotland or through [[cession]] by England.<ref>{{cite book |last=Barrow |first=G. S. W. |year=2003 |title=The Kingdom of the Scots: Government, Church and Society from the Eleventh to the Fourteenth Century |location=Edinburgh |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-1803-3 |page=121}}</ref> Berwick was made a [[royal burgh]] by [[David I of Scotland|David I]] (reigned 1124–1153).<ref>{{cite book |last=Davies |first=Norman |author-link=Norman Davies |year=2000 |title=The Isles: A History |location=London |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|Papermac]] |isbn=978-0-333-69283-7}}{{page needed|date=August 2015}}</ref> David also established many of the [[Shires of Scotland|shires]] of Scotland, with Berwick becoming the [[county town]] of [[Berwickshire]], which covered the town and a largely rural area to the north-west of it.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chalmers |first1=George |title=Caledonia |date=1810 |publisher=Cadell and Davies |location=London |page=213 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j8Q_AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA213 |access-date=19 December 2022}}</ref> A [[Mint (coin)|mint]] was present in the town by 1153.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lynch |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Lynch (historian) |year=1992 |title=Scotland: a New History |publisher=Pimlico |isbn=978-0-7126-9893-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/scotlandnewhisto0000lync/page/62 62] |url=https://archive.org/details/scotlandnewhisto0000lync/page/62}}</ref> In 1276, William de Baddeby was Constable of Berwick.<ref name="Historic Manuscripts Commission 1902, p.225">Historic Manuscripts Commission, ''MSS of Col. David Milne Home of Wedderburn Castle, N.B.'', [[HMSO]], London, 1902, pg. 225.</ref>

While under Scottish control, Berwick was referred to as "South Berwick" to differentiate it from the town of [[North Berwick]], [[East Lothian]], near Edinburgh.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.northberwick.org.uk/story.html#The_Early_Settlers |last=Seaton |first=Douglas C. |work=Royal Burgh of North Berwick |title=The Early Settlers |access-date=15 January 2015 |archive-date=16 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150116044456/http://www.northberwick.org.uk/story.html#The_Early_Settlers |url-status=live }}</ref>

Berwick had a medieval hospital for the sick and poor, which the Church administered. A charter under the [[Great Seal of Scotland]], confirmed by King [[James I of Scotland]], grants the king's chaplain "[[Thomas Lauder]] of the House of God or Hospital lying in the burgh of Berwick-upon-Tweed, to be held to him for the whole time of his life with all lands, teinds, rents and profits, etc., belonging to the said hospital, as freely as is granted to any other hospital in the Kingdom of Scotland; the king also commands all those concerned to pay to the grantee all things necessary for the support of the hospital. Dated at Edinburgh June 8, in the 20th year of his reign."{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

=== Disputed territory ===

Berwick's strategic position on the [[Anglo-Scottish border]] during centuries of war between the two nations and its relatively great wealth led to a succession of raids, sieges and takeovers. [[William I of Scotland]] invaded and attempted to capture northern England in 1173–74.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wormald |first=Jenny |author-link=Jenny Wormald |year=2005 |title=Scotland: A History |location=London |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-820615-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/scotland00jenn/page/46 46] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/scotland00jenn/page/46}}</ref> After his defeat in 1174, Berwick was ceded to [[Henry II of England]] under the [[Treaty of Falaise]], along with four other castles at [[Edinburgh]], [[Jedburgh]], [[Roxburgh]], and [[Stirling]], with the five castles to be garrisoned with English troops paid for at Scottish expense.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hallam |first=Elizabeth |year=1996 |title=The Plantagenet Encyclopedia: An Alphabetical Guide to 400 Years of English History |publisher=Crescent Books |isbn=978-0-517-14081-9 |page=29}}</ref> The Treaty of Falaise was annulled in 1189 when William paid [[Richard I of England]] 10,000 marks sterling to contribute towards the latter's [[Crusades|crusade]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Geldard |first=Ed |year=2009 |title=Northumberland Strongholds |publisher=Frances Lincoln |isbn=978-0-7112-2985-3 |page=58}}</ref>

Berwick had become a prosperous town by the middle of the 13th century. According to [[William Edington]], a bishop and chancellor of England, Berwick was "so populous and of such commercial importance that it might rightly be called another [[Alexandria]], whose riches were the sea and the water its walls".<ref>{{cite book |last=Robson |first=Eric |author-link=Eric Robson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AEOaUkge9DMC&q=the+border+line |title=The Border Line |location=London |publisher=[[Frances Lincoln Publishers]] |isbn=978-0711227163 |page=234 |date=March 2007 }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

In 1291–92, Berwick was the site of [[Edward I of England]]'s arbitration in the [[Competitors for the Crown of Scotland|contest for the Scottish crown]] between [[John Balliol]] and [[Robert Bruce, 5th Lord of Annandale]].<ref name=dunbar116>{{cite book |last=Dunbar |first=Sir Archibald H., Bt. |author-link=Dunbar baronets#Dunbar of Northfield (10 April 1700) |year=1899 |title=Scottish Kings – A Revised Chronology of Scottish History 1005–1625 |url=https://archive.org/details/scottishkingsre00dunbuoft |location=Edinburgh |page=[https://archive.org/details/scottishkingsre00dunbuoft/page/116 116]}}</ref> The decision in favour of Balliol was pronounced in the Great Hall of [[Berwick Castle]] on 17 November 1292.<ref name=dunbar116/>
[[File:Berwick heyheydecay.net.jpg|thumb|Part of the [[Berwick town walls|town walls]]]]
In 1296, England went to war with [[France]], with which Scotland was in alliance. Balliol invaded England in response, sacking [[Cumberland]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Baker |first=Charles-Arnold |year=2001 |title=The Companion to British History |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-18583-7 |page=91}}</ref> Edward, in turn, invaded Scotland and [[Capture of Berwick (1296)|captured Berwick]], destroying much of the town and massacring the burgesses, merchants and artisans of the town.<ref>{{cite book |last=Barrow |first=G. W. S. |year=2005 |title=Robert Bruce and the community of the realm of Scotland |location=Edinburgh |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-74-862022-7 |page=92}}</ref>

Edward I went again to Berwick in August 1296 to [[Ragman Rolls|receive formal homage]] from some 2,000 Scottish nobles, after defeating the Scots at the [[Battle of Dunbar (1296)|Battle of Dunbar]] in April and forcing John Balliol to abdicate at [[Kincardine Castle, Mearns|Kincardine Castle]] the following July. At this time, work began on building the town walls (and rebuilding the earlier Castle); these fortifications were complete by 1318 and subsequently improved under Scottish rule. An arm of [[William Wallace]] was displayed at Berwick after his execution and quartering on 23 August 1305.

In 1314, [[Edward II of England]] mustered 25,000 men at Berwick, who later fought in the crushing defeat at the [[Battle of Bannockburn]]. Between 1315 and 1318, Scottish armies, sometimes with the help of Flemish and German [[privateer]]s, besieged and [[blockaded]] the town, finally [[Capture of Berwick (1318)|capturing]] it in April 1318.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rogers |first=Clifford J |year=2010 |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology |location=London |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-533403-6 |page=144}}</ref>

England [[Capture of Berwick (1333)|retook Berwick]] the day after the [[Battle of Halidon Hill]] in 1333.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rogers |first=Clifford J. |year=2010 |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology |location=London |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-533403-6 |page=145}}</ref> The Scots briefly took control of the town of Berwick (but not its castle) after a [[Sieges of Berwick (1355 and 1356)|siege in November 1355]], but were in turn besieged by the English, who retook the town in January 1356. In October 1357, a treaty was signed at Berwick by which the [[Parliament of Scotland|Scottish estates]] undertook to pay 100,000 marks as a ransom for [[David II of Scotland]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Watt |first=Donald ER |author-link=D. E. R. Watt |year=2000 |title=Medieval Church Councils in Scotland |location=London |publisher=[[T&T Clark]] |isbn=978-0-567-08731-7 |page=120}}</ref> who had been taken prisoner at the [[Battle of Neville's Cross]] on 17 October 1346. In 1461, Berwick was ceded back to Scotland by [[Margaret of Anjou]] on behalf of her husband, [[Henry VI of England|Henry VI]], in return for help against the [[Yorkists]] during the [[Wars of the Roses]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Wagner |first=John |year=2001 |title=Encyclopedia of the War of the Roses |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediawars00wagn |url-access=limited |location=Santa Barbara |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |isbn=978-1-85109-358-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediawars00wagn/page/n67 28]}}</ref>

Robert Lauder of [[Edrington]] was put in charge of the castle. He was succeeded in 1474 by [[David Lindsay, 1st Duke of Montrose|David, Earl of Crawford]]. On 3 February 1478, [[Robert Lauder of the Bass]] and Edrington was again appointed Keeper of the castle, a position that he held until the final year of Scottish control, when [[Patrick Hepburn, 1st Lord Hailes|Patrick Hepburn]], 1st Lord Hailes, had possession.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

In 1482, Richard, [[Duke of Gloucester]] (later [[Richard III of England|Richard III]]) [[Capture of Berwick (1482)|recaptured the town]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Dobson |first=RB |year=1996 |title=Church and Society in the Medieval North of England |location=London |publisher=[[Continuum International Publishing Group|Continuum]] |isbn=978-1-85285-120-0 |page=132}}</ref> [[Thomas Gower (marshal of Berwick)|Thomas Gower]] ({{floruit|1543–1577}}) was the English [[marshal]] of Berwick 1543-1552. The Scots did not accept this conquest evidenced by innumerable charters for at least two centuries after this date, but never regained control of the town.<ref name="Historic Manuscripts Commission 1902, p.225"/> over a little more than 400 years, Berwick had changed hands more than a dozen times.{{sfn|Pevsner|Richmond|Grundy|McCombie|1992|p=173}}

=== English town ===

[[File:Berwick on Tweed Fortress Detail.JPG|thumb|Berwick-upon-Tweed fortress detail]]
Much of southern Scotland was again invaded by England during the "[[Rough Wooing]]" (also known as the Eight Years' War) of 1543–1551. The war ended with the Treaty of [[Norham]] in 1551, which saw England withdraw back to the border as had existed before the war began, and so retaining Berwick. Under the treaty, Berwick was declared to be a free town, independent of either kingdom.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rapin |first1=Paul |title=Acta Regia: Volume 3 |date=1727 |publisher=Le Clerc |location=London |page=373 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5u6NwgFy1YsC&pg=PA373 |access-date=8 January 2023|author1-link=Paul de Rapin }}</ref> In practice it was controlled by England and sent members of parliament to the English parliament, but as an independent borough, outside the authority of the sheriffs of any English county, similar to a [[county corporate]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Burrow |first1=James |title=Reports of Cases adjudged in the Court of King's Bench, Volume 2 |date=1776 |publisher=Worrall and Tovey |location=London |page=834 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gmVKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA834 |access-date=8 January 2023 |chapter=R. v Cowle, 1759}}</ref>

During the reign of Queen [[Elizabeth I of England]], vast sums – one source reports "£128,648, the most expensive undertaking of the Elizabethan period"<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.berwick.org.uk/berwick/berwick.htm |title=Historical Town of Berwick-upon-Tweed |access-date=5 October 2012 |archive-date=4 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120904040459/http://www.berwick.org.uk/berwick/berwick.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> – were spent on its fortifications, in a new Italian style (''[[Star fort|trace italienne]]''), designed both to withstand artillery and to facilitate its use from within the fortifications. These fortifications have been described as "the only surviving walls of their kind".<ref name=Cannon474/> [[Richard Lee (engineer)|Sir Richard Lee]] designed some of the Elizabethan works,<ref>{{cite book |year=1865 |title=Calendar State Papers Foreign Elizabeth 1559–1560 |location=London |publisher=Longman |at=no. 1064, "setting forth the device"}}</ref> and the Italian military engineer [[Giovanni Portinari]] was also involved in the project.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.northumberland.gov.uk/NorthumberlandCountyCouncil/media/Planning-and-Building/Conservation/Archaeology/Berwick.pdf |title=Berwick-upon-Tweed: Northumberland Extensive Urban Survey |date=2009 |pages=34–5 |website=Northumberland County Council |access-date=4 February 2021 |archive-date=25 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925111532/https://www.northumberland.gov.uk/NorthumberlandCountyCouncil/media/Planning-and-Building/Conservation/Archaeology/Berwick.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Berwick's role as a border fortress town ended with England and Scotland's [[Union of the Crowns]]. On 6 April 1603, [[James VI of Scotland]] crossed the Border on his journey southwards to be crowned [[James VI and I|James I]] of England. He was met at [[Lamberton, Scottish Borders|Lamberton]] by the Lord Governor of Berwick with a mounted party from the garrison and was conducted into the town.<ref>[[Maureen Meikle]], ''A British frontier? Lairds and Gentlemen in the Eastern Borders'' (Tuckwell, 2004), p. 272.</ref> In December 1603, the Crown ordered the dissolution of the garrison of Berwick and the number of soldiers was reduced to 100 men and pensioners.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.explore-northumberland.co.uk/Session%209%20Garrison%201.pdf |title=Explore-northumberland.co.uk. ''Union of the Crowns''. |access-date=29 November 2018 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920173637/http://www.explore-northumberland.co.uk/Session%209%20Garrison%201.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1639, the army of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] faced that of General [[Alexander Leslie]] at Berwick in the [[Bishops' Wars]], which were concerned with bringing the [[Presbyterian]] [[Church of Scotland]] under Charles's control. The two sides did not fight, but negotiated the [[Treaty of Berwick (1639)|Pacification of Berwick]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Seel |first=Graham E |year=1999 |title=The English Wars and Republic, 1637–1660 |url=https://archive.org/details/englishwarsrepub00seel |url-access=limited |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-19902-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/englishwarsrepub00seel/page/n10 2]}}</ref>

[[Berwick Bridge]], also known as the "Old Bridge" dates to 1611. It linked [[Islandshire]] on the south bank of the [[River Tweed]] with the county [[burgh]] of Berwick on the north bank.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://englandsnortheast.co.uk/BerwickuponTweed.html |title=Bishop Auckland |website=englandsnortheast.co.uk |access-date=4 January 2021 |archive-date=27 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027151413/https://englandsnortheast.co.uk/BerwickuponTweed.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Church of the Holy Trinity, Berwick-on-Tweed|Holy Trinity Church]] was built in 1648–52.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mowl |first1=Timothy |author1-link=Timothy Mowl |last2=Earnshaw |first2=Brian |author2-link=Brian Earnshaw |year=1995 |title=Architecture without Kings: Rise of Puritan Classicism Under Cromwell |location=Manchester |publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=978-0-7190-4679-7 |page=15}}</ref> It is the most northerly parish church in England and was built under special licence from [[Oliver Cromwell]] during the [[Commonwealth of England|Commonwealth period]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.achurchnearyou.com/church/16345/ |title=Holy Trinity |website=www.achurchnearyou.com |access-date=4 January 2021 |archive-date=23 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023083837/https://www.achurchnearyou.com/church/16345/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== British town ===

[[File:The Barracks - geograph.org.uk - 1254528.jpg|thumbnail|The Barracks (1717–1721)]]

In 1707, the [[Acts of Union 1707|Act of Union]] united England and Scotland to create the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]]. Since then, Berwick has remained within the laws and legal system of [[England and Wales]]. The [[Wales and Berwick Act 1746]] (since repealed) deemed that whenever legislation referred to England, it applied to Berwick without the need for a specific reference to the town.

Until the 1830s the borough boundaries of the town were identical to the parish of Berwick, which lay entirely on the north side of the River Tweed, covering the main part of the built-up area and the rural areas immediately north-west of it. By that time, [[Tweedmouth]] on the south side of the river had grown to a sizeable population, effectively as a suburb of the town but outside the borough boundaries. Under the [[Parliamentary Boundaries Act 1832]] the parliamentary borough (constituency) of Berwick was enlarged to include the townships of Tweedmouth and [[Spittal, Northumberland|Spittal]] south of the Tweed.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Statutes of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland |date=1832 |publisher=His Majesty's Printers |page=353 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Uq0uAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA353 |access-date=8 January 2023 |chapter=2 & 3 Will 4, c. 64}}</ref> A couple of years later, the [[Municipal Corporations Act 1835]] standardised how boroughs were governed across England and Wales, and Berwick's municipal boundaries were enlarged to match the parliamentary borough, bringing Tweedmouth and Spittal under the jurisdiction of Berwick's town council. The same act also formalised Berwick's status as an independent [[county corporate]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Municipal Corporations (England and Wales): Appendix to the first report of the Commissioners Part III - Northern and North Midland Circuits |date=1835 |publisher=House of Commons |location=London |page=1447 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N3FTAAAAcAAJ&dq=report+of+the+commissioners+tweedmouth+berwick+1835&pg=PA1447 |access-date=8 January 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sewell |first1=Richard Clarke |title=Municipal Corporations Act 1835 (5 & 6 Will. 4, c. 76) |date=1835 |publisher=Butterworth |location=London |page=181 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TEZfAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA181 |access-date=8 January 2023}}</ref> The population of the borough in 1841 was 12,578, and that of the parish was 8,484.<ref>''The National Cyclopaedia of Useful Knowledge'', Vol III, London, Charles Knight, 1847, p.256</ref>

In the 1840s, [[Samuel Lewis (publisher)|Samuel Lewis]] included similar entries for Berwick-upon-Tweed in both his England and Scotland ''Topographical Dictionary''.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Berwick-upon-Tweed |title=A Topographical Dictionary of England |editor-first=Samuel |editor-last=Lewis |location=London |year=1848 |page=223 |via=British History Online |chapter-url=https://www.british-history.ac.uk/topographical-dict/england/pp214-223#h3-0029 |access-date=5 July 2019 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806130654/https://www.british-history.ac.uk/topographical-dict/england/pp214-223#h3-0029 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |chapter=Berwick-upon-Tweed |title=A Topographical Dictionary of Scotland |editor-first=Samuel |editor-last=Lewis |location=London |year=1846 |page=124 |via=British History Online |chapter-url=https://www.british-history.ac.uk/topographical-dict/scotland/pp124-151#h2-0001 |access-date=5 July 2019 |archive-date=27 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927233452/http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=43423#h2-0001 |url-status=live }}</ref> Berwick remained a county in its own right, and remained a separate parliamentary constituency until 1885 when it was merged to become a division of [[Northumberland]] under the [[Redistribution of Seats Act 1885]]. In 1889 elected county councils were established under the [[Local Government Act 1888]], which were based on the parliamentary boundaries of counties, and so Berwick was brought under the jurisdiction of [[Northumberland County Council]], with the town council thereafter being a lower-tier authority subordinate to the county council.<ref>{{cite legislation UK|type=act|act=Local Government Act 1888|year=1888|chapter=41|section=48|accessdate=9 January 2023}}</ref>

[[File:Berwick 1972.jpg|thumb|Berwick in 1972]]
England now is officially defined as "subject to any alteration of boundaries under Part IV of the [[Local Government Act 1972]], the area consisting of the counties established by section 1 of that Act, Greater London and the Isles of Scilly",<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1978/30/schedule/1 |title=Schedule 1 of The Interpretation Act 1978 |work=Legislation.gov.uk |access-date=5 October 2012 |archive-date=11 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210311182014/https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1978/30/schedule/1 |url-status=live }}</ref> which thus includes Berwick. In the 1972 act's reorganisation of English local government from 1 April 1974, the [[Berwick-upon-Tweed (borough)|Borough of Berwick-upon-Tweed]] was created by the merger of the previous borough of Berwick-upon-Tweed with Belford Rural District, Glendale Rural District and [[Norham and Islandshires Rural District]].

The [[Interpretation Act 1978]] provides that in legislation passed between 1967 and 1974, "a reference to England includes Berwick upon Tweed and [[Monmouthshire (historic)|Monmouthshire]]".

In 2009 the Borough of Berwick-upon-Tweed was abolished as part of [[2009 structural changes to local government in England|wider structural changes to local government in England]]. All functions previously exercised by Berwick Borough Council were transferred to [[Northumberland County Council]], which is the [[unitary authority]] for the area.