Editing Belarus (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of Belarus}}

===Early history===
{{further|Early Slavs}}
From 5000 to 2000 BC, the [[Bandkeramik]] predominated in what now constitutes Belarus, and the [[Cimmerians]] as well as other pastoralists roamed through the area by 1,000 BC. The [[Zarubintsy culture]] later became widespread at the beginning of the [[1st millennium]]. In addition, remains from the [[Dnieper–Donets culture]] were found in Belarus and parts of [[Ukraine]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shaw|first1=Ian|last2=Jameson|first2=Robert|title=A Dictionary of Archaeology|publisher=Wiley|year=2008|pages=203–204|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8HKDtlPuM2oC&pg=PA203|isbn=978-0-470-75196-1}}</ref> The region was first permanently settled by [[Baltic peoples|Baltic]] tribes in the 3rd century. Around the 5th century, the area was taken over by the Slavs. The takeover was partially due to the lack of military coordination of the Balts, but their gradual assimilation into Slavic culture was peaceful.<ref>{{harvnb|Zaprudnik|1993|p=7}}</ref> Invaders from [[Asia]], among whom were the [[Huns]] and [[Avars (Carpathians)|Avars]], swept through c. 400–600 AD, but were unable to dislodge the Slavic presence.<ref>John Haywood, ''Historical Atlas, Ancient and Classical World'' (1998).<!-- ISSN/ISBN needed--></ref>

===Kievan Rus'===
{{further|Kievan Rus'}}
[[File:001 Kievan Rus' Kyivan Rus' Ukraine map 1220 1240.jpg|thumb|upright|[[List of early East Slavic states|Principalities]] in Eastern Europe before the Mongol and Lithuanian invasions]]
In the 9th century, the territory of modern Belarus became part of [[Kievan Rus']], a vast East Slavic state ruled by the [[Rurikids]]. Upon the death of its ruler [[Yaroslav the Wise]] in 1054, the state split into independent principalities.<ref>{{cite book |last=Plokhy |first=Serhii |title=The Origins of the Slavic Nations |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=0-521-86403-8 |pages=94–95}}</ref> The [[Battle on the Nemiga River]] in 1067 was one of the more notable events of the period, the date of which is considered the founding date of [[Minsk]].

Many early principalities were virtually razed or severely affected by a major [[Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'|Mongol invasion]] in the 13th century, but the lands of modern-day Belarus avoided the brunt of the invasion and eventually joined the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Robinson|first=Charles Henry|title=The Conversion of Europe|url=https://archive.org/details/conversioneurop00robigoog|publisher=Longmans, Green|year=1917|pages=491–492|isbn=978-0-00-750296-7}}</ref> There are no sources of military seizure, but the annals affirm the alliance and united foreign policy of [[Principality of Polotsk|Polotsk]] and Lithuania for decades.<ref>{{cite book |author=NN |translator-last1=Michell |translator-first1=Robert |translator-last2=Forbes |translator-first2=Nevill |others=Introduction by C. Raymond Beazley. Text account by A.A. Shakhmatov |year=1914 |title=The chronicle of Novgorod, 1016–1471 |publisher=London, Offices of the society |page=41 |url=https://archive.org/details/chronicleofnovgo00michrich}}</ref>

Incorporation into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania resulted in an economic, political, and ethno-cultural unification of Belarusian lands.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ermalovich|first=Mikola|title=Pa sliadakh adnago mifa (Tracing one Myth)|publisher=Minsk: Navuka i tekhnika|year=1991|url=http://www.books-by-isbn.com/5-343/5343008763-Pa-sliadakh-adnaho-mifa-M-Ermalovich-5-343-00876-3.html|isbn=978-5-343-00876-0}}</ref> Of the principalities held by the duchy, nine of them were settled by a population that would eventually become the [[Belarusians]].<ref name="zaprudnik">{{Harvnb|Zaprudnik|1993|p=27}}</ref> During this time, the duchy was involved in several military campaigns, including fighting on the side of [[Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)|Poland]] against the [[Teutonic Knights]] at the [[Battle of Grunwald]] in 1410; the joint victory allowed the duchy to control the northwestern borderlands of [[Eastern Europe]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Lerski|first=George Jan|author2=[[Aleksander Gieysztor]]|title=Historical Dictionary of Poland, 966–1945|publisher=[[Greenwood Press]]|year=1996|pages=181–82|isbn=0-313-26007-9}}</ref>

The [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Muscovites]], led by [[Ivan III of Russia]], began military campaigns in 1486 in an attempt to incorporate the former lands of [[Kievan Rus']], including the territories of modern-day Belarus and [[Ukraine]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Nowak |first=Andrzej |date=1 January 1997 |title=The Russo-Polish Historical Confrontation |url=http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~sarmatia/197/Nowak.html |access-date=22 December 2007 |work=Sarmatian Review&nbsp;XVII |publisher=[[Rice University]]}}</ref>

===Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth===
{{Further|Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth}}
[[File:GDL Map, 15cent.png|thumb|A map of the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] in the 15th century prior to its union with the [[Crown of the Kingdom of Poland|Kingdom of Poland]]. Belarus was fully within its borders.]]

On 2 February 1386, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the [[Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)|Kingdom of Poland]] were joined in a [[personal union]] through a [[Union of Krewo|marriage of their rulers]].<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Jones|editor-first=Michael|last=Rowell|first=S.C.|contribution=Baltic Europe|title=The New Cambridge Medieval History (Vol. 6)|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2005|page=710|isbn=0-521-36290-3}}</ref> This union set in motion the developments that eventually resulted in the formation of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]], created in 1569 by the [[Union of Lublin]].<ref name=Lukowski>{{cite book |last1=Lukowski |first1=Jerzy |author-link1=Jerzy Lukowski |last2=Zawadzki |first2=Hubert |title=A Concise History of Poland |edition=1st |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-521-55917-1 |pages=63–64}}</ref><ref name=Riasanovsky>{{cite book |last=Riasanovsky |first=Nicholas V. |title=A History of Russia |year=1999 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-512179-7 |edition=6th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KRjcXHliMpcC&pg=PA137}}</ref>

In the years following the union, the process of gradual [[Polonization]] of both Lithuanians and Ruthenians gained steady momentum. In culture and social life, both the [[Polish language]] and [[Catholicism]] became dominant, and in 1696, Polish replaced Ruthenian as the official language, with Ruthenian being banned from administrative use.<ref>[http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=103&menu=00 "Belarusian": UCLA Language Materials Project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222171418/http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=103&menu=00 |date=22 December 2015 }}, ucla.edu; accessed 4 March 2016.</ref> However, the Ruthenian peasants continued to speak their native language. Also, the [[Belarusian Byzantine Catholic Church]] was formed by the Poles to bring Orthodox Christians into the [[Holy See|See of Rome]]. The Belarusian church entered into a full [[Koinonia|communion]] with the [[Latin Church]] through the [[Union of Brest]] in 1595, while keeping its Byzantine [[liturgy]] in the [[Church Slavonic]] language.

===Russian Empire===
{{main|Belarusian history in the Russian Empire}}
{{Further|Kościuszko Uprising|November Uprising|January Uprising}}
[[File:Berezyna.jpg|thumb|Napoleon's ''Grande Armée'' retreating after [[Napoleon's invasion of Russia|his invasion of Russia]] and crossing the [[Berezina river]] (near [[Barysaw]], Belarus)]]
The union between Poland and Lithuania ended in 1795 with the [[Third Partition of Poland]] by Imperial Russia, [[Prussia]], and [[Habsburg monarchy|Austria]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Scheuch|first=E.K.|author2=David Sciulli|title=Societies, Corporations and the Nation State|publisher=Brill|year=2000|page=187|isbn=90-04-11664-8}}</ref> The Belarusian territories acquired by the Russian Empire under the reign of [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine&nbsp;II]]<ref>{{harvnb|Birgerson|2002|page=101}}</ref> were included into the [[Belarusian Governorate]] ({{langx|ru|Белорусское генерал-губернаторство}}) in 1796 and held until their occupation by the [[German Empire]] during [[World War I]].<ref name="olson95">{{harvnb|Olson|Pappas|Pappas|1994|page=95}}</ref>

Under [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] and [[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander III]] the national cultures were repressed with policies of [[Polonization]]<ref>{{in lang|ru}} [http://www.pravoslavie.ru/arhiv/050513111111 Воссоединение униатов и исторические судьбы Белорусского народа] (''Vossoyedineniye uniatov i istoričeskiye sud'bi Belorusskogo naroda''), [http://www.pravoslavie.ru/ Pravoslavie portal]</ref> replaced by [[Russification]]<ref name="zytko-1">Żytko, ''Russian policy&nbsp;...'', p. 551.</ref> which included the return to [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity]] of Belarusian [[Union of Brest|Uniates]]. Belarusian language was banned in schools while in nearby [[Samogitia]] primary school education with [[Samogitian dialect|Samogitian]] literacy was allowed.<ref name="Корнилов1908">{{cite book|author=Иван Петрович Корнилов|script-title=ru:Русское дєло в Сєверо-Западном крає: материиалы для историии Виленскаго учебнаго округа преимущественно в Муравьевскую эпоху|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=edsGAAAAYAAJ|year=1908|publisher=Тип. А.С. Суворина|language=ru}}</ref>

In a [[Russification]] drive in the 1840s, [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] prohibited the use of the Belarusian language in public schools, campaigned against Belarusian publications, and tried to pressure those who had converted to Catholicism under the Poles to reconvert to the Orthodox faith. In 1863, economic and cultural pressure exploded in a [[January Uprising|revolt]], led by [[Konstanty Kalinowski]] (also known as Kastus). After the failed revolt, the Russian government reintroduced the use of [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]] to Belarusian in 1864 and no documents in Belarusian were permitted by the Russian government until 1905.<ref>{{cite book|author=D. Marples|title=Belarus: From Soviet Rule to Nuclear Catastrophe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=evVZCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA26|year=1996|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|isbn=978-0-230-37831-5|page=26}}</ref>

During the negotiations of the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Russia–Central Powers)|Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]], Belarus first declared independence under German occupation on 25 March 1918, forming the [[Belarusian People's Republic]].<ref name="birgerson">{{harvnb|Birgerson|2002|pages=105–106}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Ioffe|first=Grigory|title=Understanding Belarus and How Western Foreign Policy Misses the Mark|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc|year=2008|page=57|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=00B6wxgftH8C&q=west+belarus&pg=PA150|isbn=978-0-7425-5558-7}}</ref> Immediately afterwards, the [[Polish–Soviet War]] ignited, and the territory of Belarus was divided between Poland and Soviet Russia.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QJhMhTKw-vgC&q=belarus+partition&pg=PA282|title=The Reconstruction of Nations|author=Timothy Snyder|publisher=Yale University Press |page=282 |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-300-12841-3}}</ref> The Rada of the Belarusian Democratic Republic exists as a [[government in exile]] ever since then; in fact, it is currently the world's longest serving government in exile.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/belarus-government-in-exile-290/|title=Europe's Last Dictatorship Is Opposed by the Oldest Exiled Government in the World|date=26 January 2016}}</ref>

===Early states and interwar period===
[[File:Dziejačy BNR.jpg|thumb|right|The first government ("activists") of the Belarussian People's Republic (BNR, Беларуская Народная Рэспубліка), 1918.<br />Sitting, left to right:<br />[[Aliaksandar Burbis]], [[Jan Sierada]], [[Jazep Varonka]], [[Vasil Zacharka]].<br />Standing, left to right:<br />[[Arkadź Smolič]], [[Pyotra Krecheuski]], [[Kastuś Jezavitaŭ]], [[Anton Ausianik]], [[Liavon Zayats]].]]
The [[Belarusian People's Republic]] was the first attempt to create an independent Belarusian state under the name "Belarus". Despite significant efforts, the state ceased to exist, primarily because the territory was continually dominated by the [[Imperial German Army]] and the [[Imperial Russian Army]] in [[World War I]], and then the [[Bolshevik]] [[Red Army]]. It existed from only 1918 to 1919 but created prerequisites for the formation of a Belarusian state. The choice of name was probably based on the fact that core members of the newly formed government were educated in tsarist universities, with corresponding emphasis on the ideology of West-Russianism.<ref name="Jr.Zaprudnik2010">{{cite book|author1=Vitali Silitski, Jr.|author2=Jan Zaprudnik|title=The A to Z of Belarus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bQXyAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA308|date=7 April 2010|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-1-4617-3174-0|pages=308–}}</ref>

The [[Republic of Central Lithuania]] was a short-lived political entity, which was the last attempt to restore Lithuania to the historical confederacy state (it was also supposed to create Lithuania Upper and Lithuania Lower). The republic was created in 1920 following [[Żeligowski's Mutiny|the staged rebellion]] of soldiers of the [[1st Lithuanian–Belarusian Division]] of the [[Polish Army]] under [[Lucjan Żeligowski]]. Centered on the historical capital of the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]], [[Vilna]] ({{langx|lt|Vilnius}}, {{langx|pl|Wilno}}), for 18 months the entity served as a [[buffer state]] between [[Poland]], upon which it depended, and Lithuania, which claimed the area.<ref name="von Rauch">{{cite book | first=Georg von |last=Rauch |author-link=Georg von Rauch | editor=Gerald Onn | title =The Baltic States: Years of Independence – Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, 1917–40 | year =1974 | pages = 100–102 | chapter =The Early Stages of Independence | chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=emBIdi4LPz8C&pg=PA101 |publisher =C. Hurst & Co| isbn=0-903983-00-1 }}</ref> After a variety of delays, [[1922 Republic of Central Lithuania general election|a disputed election]] took place on 8 January 1922, and the territory was annexed to Poland. Żeligowski later in his memoir which was published in London in 1943 condemned the annexation of the Republic by Poland, as well as the policy of closing Belarusian schools and general disregard of Marshal [[Józef Piłsudski]]'s confederation plans by Polish ally.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://history-belarus.by/images/img-figures/zeligowski/Zeligowski_Zapomnianae-prawdy.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://history-belarus.by/images/img-figures/zeligowski/Zeligowski_Zapomnianae-prawdy.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live|title=Zapomniane prawdy|author=Żeligowski, Lucjan|year=1943|publisher=F. Mildner & Sons|language = pl}}</ref>

[[File:Kurapaty 1989 meeting.jpg|thumb|Meeting in the [[Kurapaty]] woods, 1989, where between 1937 and 1941 from 30,000 to 250,000 people, including Belarusian [[intelligentsia]] members, were [[Soviet repressions in Belarus|murdered]] by the [[NKVD]] during the [[Great Purge]]]]

In January 1919, a part of Belarus under Bolshevik Russian control was declared the [[Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia]] (SSRB) for just two months, but then merged with the [[Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic]] (LSSR) to form the [[Socialist Soviet Republic of Lithuania and Belorussia]] (SSR LiB), which lost control of its territories by August.

The [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic]] (BSSR) was created in July 1920.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ioffe |first1=Grigorij Viktorovič |last2=Silitski |first2=Vitali |title=Historical dictionary of Belarus |date=2018 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |location=Lanham (Md.) |isbn=978-1-5381-1706-4 |page=282 |edition=3rd}}</ref>

The contested lands were divided between Poland and the [[Soviet Union]] after the war ended in 1921, and the Byelorussian SSR became a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922.<ref name="birgerson" /><ref>{{cite book|last=Marples|first=David|title=Belarus: A Denationalized Nation|publisher=Routledge|year=1999|page=5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EMCYfOSaLSgC&q=Belarusian+People%27s+Republic&pg=PA8|isbn=90-5702-343-1}}</ref> In the 1920s and 1930s, Soviet agricultural and economic policies, including [[collectivization]] and [[Five-year plans of the Soviet Union|five-year plans for the national economy]], led to famine and political repression.<ref>{{cite web |title=Belarus history |url=http://www.belarus.by/en/about-belarus/history |access-date=17 March 2017 |publisher=Official website of the Republic of Belarus}}</ref>

The [[Western Belorussia|western part of modern Belarus]] remained part of the [[Second Polish Republic]].<ref name="ocu1">{{cite book|title=The global and the local: understanding the dialectics of business systems|last=Sorge|first=Arndt|year=2005|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-153534-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Nick Baron|author2=Peter Gatrell|title=Homelands|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FCBVPqAWuUsC&pg=PA19|access-date=18 September 2015|year= 2004|publisher=Anthem Press|isbn=978-1-84331-385-4|page=19|chapter=War, Population Displacement and State Formation in the Russian Borderlands 1914–1924}}</ref> After an early period of liberalization, tensions between increasingly nationalistic Polish government and various increasingly separatist ethnic minorities started to grow, and the [[Belarusian minority in Poland|Belarusian minority]] was no exception.<ref name="Davies">[[Norman Davies]], ''[[God's Playground]]'' (Polish edition), second tome, pp. 512–513</ref><ref name="Stosunki">{{Cite web|url=http://www.bialorus.pl/index.php?secId=49&docId=60&&Rozdzial=historia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080623073822/http://www.bialorus.pl/index.php?secId=49&docId=60&&Rozdzial=historia|title=Stosunki polsko-białoruskie pod okupacją sowiecką (1939–1941)|archive-date=23 June 2008}}</ref> The [[polonization]] drive was inspired and influenced by the Polish [[National Democracy (Poland)|National Democracy]], led by [[Roman Dmowski]], who advocated refusing Belarusians and Ukrainians the right for a free national development.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mironowicz |first=Eugeniusz |year=2007 |trans-title=Białorusini i Ukraińcy w polityce obozu piłsudczykowskiego |title=Belarusians and Ukrainians in the policies of the Piłsudski camp |url=http://kamunikat.org/usie_knihi.html?pubid=2006 |language=pl |pages=4–5 |publisher=Wydawn. Uniwersyteckie Trans Humana |isbn=978-83-89190-87-1}}</ref> A Belarusian organization, the ''[[Belarusian Peasants' and Workers' Union]]'', was banned in 1927, and opposition to Polish government was met with state repressions.<ref name="Davies" /><ref name="Stosunki" /> Nonetheless, compared to the (larger) [[Ukrainian minority in Poland|Ukrainian minority]], Belarusians were much less politically aware and active, and thus suffered fewer repressions than the Ukrainians.<ref name="Davies" /><ref name="Stosunki" /> In 1935, after the death of Piłsudski, a new wave of repressions was released upon the minorities, with many [[Belarusian Orthodox Church|Orthodox churches]] and Belarusian schools being closed.<ref name="Davies" /><ref name="Stosunki" /> Use of the [[Belarusian language]] was discouraged.<ref>Bieder, H. (2000): Konfession, Ethnie und Sprache in Weißrußland im 20. Jahrhundert. In: Zeitschrift für Slawistik 45 (2000), 200–214.</ref> Belarusian leadership was sent to [[Bereza Kartuska prison]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Lubachko |first=Ivan |title=Belorussia under Soviet Rule, 1917–1957 |title-link=Belorussia under Soviet Rule, 1917–1957 |publisher=University Press of Kentucky |year=1972|page=137}}</ref>

===World War II===
{{main|Byelorussia in World War II|German occupation of Byelorussia during World War II}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-137-1010-37A, Minsk, deutsche Truppen vor modernen Gebäuden.jpg|thumb|upright|German soldiers in [[Minsk]], August 1941]]
[[File:Hatiny1.jpg|thumb|upright=1|[[Khatyn]] Memorial; during World War II the German Nazis murdered civilians in 5,295 different localities in [[Occupation of Belarus by Nazi Germany|occupied Soviet Belarus]].]]
In September 1939, the Soviet Union invaded and occupied eastern Poland, following the German [[invasion of Poland]] two weeks earlier which marked the beginning of [[World War II]]. The territories of [[Western Belorussia]] were [[Soviet annexation of Western Belorussia|annexed]] and incorporated into the Byelorussian SSR.<ref name="uni1">{{cite book |last=Abdelal |first=Rawi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o85YDMTeMrUC&q=reunification+of+western+belarus |title=National purpose in the world economy: post-Soviet states in comparative perspective |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8014-3879-0}}</ref><ref name="uni2">{{cite book |last=Taylor & Francis Group |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wGA4o-UhAfgC&q=reunification+of+western+belarus&pg=PA713 |title=Europa World Year, Book 1 |publisher=[[Routledge|Europa publications]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-85743-254-1}}</ref><ref name="uni3">
* Клоков В. Я. Великий освободительный поход Красной Армии. (Освобождение Западной Украины и Западной Белоруссии).-Воронеж, 1940.
* Минаев В. Западная Белоруссия и Западная Украина под гнетом панской Польши.—М., 1939.
* Трайнин И.Национальное и социальное освобождение Западной Украины и Западной Белоруссии.—М., 1939.—80 с.
* Гiсторыя Беларусі. Том пяты.—Мінск, 2006.—с. 449–474
</ref><ref name="uni4">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jZJntMQtkSYC&q=Belarus+map+1945&pg=PA106|title=Belarus: The Last European Dictatorship|author=Andrew Wilson|year=2011|publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-13435-3}}</ref> The Soviet-controlled Byelorussian People's Council officially took control of the territories, whose populations consisted of a mixture of Poles, Ukrainians, Belarusians and Jews, on {{nowrap|28 October}} 1939 in [[Białystok]]. Nazi Germany [[Operation Barbarossa|invaded the Soviet Union]] in 1941. The [[Defense of Brest Fortress|defense]] of [[Brest Fortress]] was the first major battle of [[Operation Barbarossa]].

The Byelorussian SSR was the hardest-hit Soviet republic in World War II; it remained under [[German occupation of Byelorussia during World War II|German occupation]] until 1944. The German {{lang|de|[[Generalplan Ost]]}} called for the extermination, expulsion, or enslavement of most or all Belarusians to provide more [[Lebensraum|living space]] in the [[Drang nach Osten|East]] for Germans.<ref>[[Timothy Snyder|Snyder, Timothy]] (2010). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ks0WBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA160 Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin]''. Basic Books. p. 160. {{ISBN|0-465-00239-0}}</ref> Most of Western Belarus became part of the ''[[Reichskommissariat Ostland]]'' in 1941, but in 1943 the German authorities allowed local [[Byelorussian collaboration with Nazi Germany|collaborators]] to set up a client state, the [[Belarusian Central Council]].<ref>(German) Dallin, Alexander (1958). ''Deutsche Herrschaft in Russland, 1941–1945: Eine Studie über Besatzungspolitik'', pp. 234–236. Droste Verlag GmbH, Düsseldorf.</ref>

During World War II, Belarus was home to a variety of [[Belarusian resistance during World War II|guerrilla movements]], including Jewish, Polish, and Soviet partisans. Belarusian partisan formations formed a large part of the [[Soviet partisans]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Exeler |first=Franziska |title=What Did You Do during the War?: Personal Responses to the Aftermath of Nazi Occupation |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309756528 |journal=Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History |page=807 |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> and in the modern day these partisans have formed a core part of the Belarusian national identity, with Belarus continuing to refer to itself as the "partisan republic" since the 1970s.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ioffe |first=Grigory |date=6 February 2015 |title=The Partisan Movements in Belarus During World War II (Part Two) |url=https://jamestown.org/program/the-partisan-movements-in-belarus-during-world-war-ii-part-two/ |access-date=29 March 2023 |website=[[Jamestown Foundation]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Chernyshova |first=Natalya |title=Belarus |url=https://soviethistory.msu.edu/1973-2/belarus/ |access-date=29 March 2023 |website=Seventeen Moments in Soviet History|date=15 June 2022 }}</ref> Following the war, many former Soviet partisans entered positions of government, among them [[Pyotr Masherov]] and [[Kirill Mazurov]], both of whom were First Secretary of the Communist Party of Byelorussia. Until the late 1970s, the Belarusian government was almost entirely composed of former partisans.<ref name="Ioffe">{{Cite journal |last=Ioffe |first=Grigory |date=December 2003 |title=Understanding Belarus: Belarusian Identity |journal=Europe-Asia Studies |volume=55 |issue=8 |page=1259 |doi=10.1080/0966813032000141105 |jstor=3594506 |s2cid=143667635 |issn=0966-8136 }}</ref> Numerous pieces of media have been made about the Belarusian partisans, including the 1985 film ''[[Come and See]]'' and the works of authors [[Ales Adamovich]] and [[Vasil Bykaŭ]].

The German occupation in 1941–1944 and war on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] devastated Belarus. During that time, 209 out of 290 towns and cities were destroyed, 85% of the republic's industry, and more than one million buildings. After the war, it was estimated that 2.2 million local inhabitants had died, and of those some 810,000 were combatants—some foreign. This figure represented [[World War II casualties of the Soviet Union|a staggering quarter of the prewar population]].<ref name="axell">{{cite book |last=Axell |first=Albert |url=https://archive.org/details/russiasheroes19400albe/page/247 |title=Russia's Heroes, 1941–45 |publisher=Carroll & Graf Publishers |year=2002 |isbn=0-7867-1011-X |page=[https://archive.org/details/russiasheroes19400albe/page/247 247]}}</ref> In the 1990s some raised the estimate even higher, to 2.7 million.<ref>{{cite book|title=Belarus: The Last European Dictatorship|author=Andrew Wilson|year=2011|isbn=978-0-300-13435-3|page=110|publisher=Yale University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jZJntMQtkSYC&q=Belarus%20map%201945&pg=PA110}}</ref> The [[History of the Jews in Belarus|Jewish population of Belarus]] was devastated during [[the Holocaust]] and never recovered.<ref name="axell"/><ref name="warpop">{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/belarus/11.htm|title=Belarus&nbsp;– Stalin and Russification|access-date=26 March 2006|last=Fedor|first=Helen|year=1995|work=Belarus: A Country Study|publisher=[[Library of Congress]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://function.mil.ru/news_page/country/more.htm?id=10335986@cmsArticle|title=Потери гражданского населения|website=function.mil.ru|access-date=28 August 2019}}</ref> The population of Belarus did not regain its pre-war level until 1971.<ref name="warpop"/> Belarus was also hit hard economically, losing around half of its economic resources.<ref name="axell" />

===Post-war===
[[File:М. І. Гусеў. Плакат, выпушчаны да выбараў у Вярхоўныя Саветы БССР і СССР ад заходніх абласцей Беларусі.jpg|thumb|upright|Belarusian poster where the text reads "Long live the Stalinist constitution of victorious socialism and true democracy!" (issued in 1940)]]
The borders of the Byelorussian SSR and Poland were redrawn, in accord with the 1919-proposed [[Curzon Line]].<ref name="olson95"/>  Byelorus gained territory to the west: the formerly Polish [[Kresy]].

[[Joseph Stalin]] implemented a policy of [[Sovietization]] to isolate the Byelorussian SSR from [[Western world|Western influences]].<ref name="warpop"/> This policy involved sending Russians from various parts of the Soviet Union and placing them in key positions in the Byelorussian SSR government. After Stalin died in 1953, [[Nikita Khrushchev]] continued his predecessor's [[cultural hegemony]] program, stating, "The sooner we all start speaking Russian, the faster we shall build communism."<ref name="warpop"/>

Between Stalin's death in 1953 and 1980, Belarusian politics was dominated by former members of the Soviet partisans, including First Secretaries Kirill Mazurov and Pyotr Masherov.<ref name="Ioffe"/> Mazurov and Masherov oversaw Belarus's [[Belarusian economic miracle|rapid industrialisation]] and transformation from one of the Soviet Union's poorest republics into one of its richest.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=Andrew |title=Belarus: The Last European Dictatorship |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-300-25921-6 |edition=New |location=New Haven, London |pages=237–239}}</ref> In 1986, the Byelorussian SSR was contaminated with most (70%) of the [[nuclear fallout]] from the explosion at the [[Chernobyl disaster|Chernobyl]] power plant located 16&nbsp;km beyond the border in the neighboring [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian SSR]].<ref name="Gorby">{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/belarus/12.htm|title=Belarus- Perestroika|access-date=26 March 2007|last=Fedor|first=Helen|year=1995|work=Belarus: A Country Study|publisher=[[Library of Congress]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=11 August 2020|title=Belarus: Five things you may not know about the country|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-53727243|access-date=16 August 2020|work=BBC News}}</ref>

By the late 1980s, political liberalization led to a national revival, with the [[Belarusian Popular Front]] becoming a major pro-independence force.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/1066125.html|title=Post-Soviet Belarus: A Timeline|website=rferl.org|date=24 February 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17941637|title=Belarus profile – Timeline|work=BBC News|date=20 August 2018}}</ref>

===Independence===
[[File:RIAN archive 848095 Signing the Agreement to eliminate the USSR and establish the Commonwealth of Independent States.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Leaders of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus signed the [[Belavezha Accords]], [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|dissolving the Soviet Union]], 8 December 1991.]]
In March 1990, [[12th Belarusian Supreme Council|elections]] for seats in the [[Supreme Soviet]] of the Byelorussian SSR took place. Though the opposition candidates, mostly associated with the pro-independence [[Belarusian Popular Front]], took only 10% of the seats,<ref name="byind">{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/belarus/39.htm|title=Belarus&nbsp;– Prelude to Independence|access-date=22 December 2007|last=Fedor|first=Helen|year=1995|work=Belarus: A Country Study|publisher=[[Library of Congress]]}}</ref> Belarus declared itself sovereign on 27 July 1990 by issuing the [[Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic]].<ref>{{cite web |title=History, Belarus |url=https://www.belarus.by/en/about-belarus/history |website=Belarus.by |access-date=6 April 2021 |archive-date=2 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402173018/https://www.belarus.by/en/about-belarus/history }}</ref>

[[1991 Belarusian strikes|Wide-scale strikes]] erupted in April 1991. With the support of the [[Communist Party of Byelorussia]], the country's name was changed to the Republic of Belarus on 25 August 1991.<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Belarus|access-date=4 March 2016|year=2016|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/belarus/}}</ref><ref name="byind"/> [[Stanislav Shushkevich]], the chairman of the Supreme Soviet of Belarus, met with [[Boris Yeltsin]] of Russia and [[Leonid Kravchuk]] of Ukraine on 8 December 1991 in [[Białowieża Forest]] to formally declare the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the formation of the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]].<ref name="byind"/>

In January 1992, the [[Belarusian Popular Front]] campaigned for early elections later in the year, two years before they were scheduled. By May of that year, about 383,000 signatures had been collected for a petition to hold the referendum, which was 23,000 more than legally required to be put to a referendum at the time. Despite this, the meeting of the [[Supreme Council of the Republic of Belarus]] to ultimately decide the date for the referendum was delayed by six months. However, with no evidence to suggest such, the Supreme Council rejected the petition on the grounds of massive irregularities. Elections for the Supreme Council were set for March 1994. A new law on parliamentary elections failed to pass by 1993. Disputes over the referendum were accredited to the largely conservative [[Party of Belarusian Communists]], which controlled the Supreme Council at the time and was largely opposed to political and economic reform, with allegations that some of the deputies opposed Belarusian independence.<ref>{{cite book |title=Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States 1997 |date=November 1996 |publisher=Europa Publications Limited |isbn=1-85743-025-5 |page=181 |edition=3 }}</ref>

===Lukashenko era===
[[File:Belarus 1997 CIA map.jpg|thumb|1997 map of Belarus]]
A [[Constitution of Belarus|national constitution]] was adopted in March 1994 in which the functions of prime minister were given to the [[President of Belarus]]. A two-round [[1994 Belarusian presidential election|election for the presidency on 24 June 1994 and 10 July 1994]]<ref name=Factbook/> catapulted the formerly unknown [[Alexander Lukashenko]] into national prominence. He garnered 45% of the vote in the first round and 80%<ref name="byind"/> in the second, defeating [[Vyacheslav Kebich]] who received 14% of the vote. The elections were the first and only free elections in Belarus after independence.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/116265.stm Profile: Europe's last dictator?] BBC News, 10 September 2001</ref>

The 2000s saw some economic disputes between Belarus and its primary economic partner, Russia. The first one was the [[2004 Russia–Belarus energy dispute]] when Russian energy giant [[Gazprom]] ceased the import of gas into Belarus because of price disagreements. The [[2007 Russia–Belarus energy dispute]] centered on accusations by Gazprom that Belarus was siphoning oil from the [[Druzhba pipeline]] that runs through Belarus. Two years later the so-called [[Milk War]], a trade dispute, started when Russia wanted Belarus to recognize the independence of [[Abkhazia]] and [[South Ossetia]] and through a series of events ended up banning the import of dairy products from Belarus.

In 2011, Belarus suffered [[Economy of Belarus#Crisis of 2011|a severe economic crisis]] attributed to Lukashenko's government's centralized control of the economy, with inflation reaching 108.7%.<ref name="2011-crisis">{{cite web |author=Andrew E. Kramer |date=11 May 2011 |title=Belarus Economic Crisis Deepens as Currency Plunges |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/12/world/europe/12belarus.html |url-access=limited |work=The New York Times}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Around the same time the [[2011 Minsk Metro bombing]] occurred in which 15 people were killed and 204 were injured. Two suspects, who were arrested within two days, confessed to being the perpetrators and were executed by shooting in 2012. The official version of events as publicised by the Belarusian government was questioned in the unprecedented wording of the [[UN Security Council]] statement condemning "the apparent terrorist attack" intimating the possibility that the Belarusian government itself was behind the bombing.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/press/en/2011/sc10225.doc.htm|title=Security Council Press Statement on Minsk Bombing &#124; Meetings Coverage and Press Releases|website=www.un.org}}</ref>

[[File:Alexander Lukashenko, opening of Slavianski Bazar 2014.jpg|thumb|[[Alexander Lukashenko]] has ruled Belarus since 1994.]]
[[2020–2021 Belarusian protests|Mass protests]] erupted across the country following the disputed [[2020 Belarusian presidential election]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Belarus's Protests Aren't Particularly Anti-Putin |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/08/19/belarus-protest-not-anti-russian-putin-interfere/ |work=Foreign Policy |date=19 August 2020}}</ref> in which Lukashenko sought a sixth term in office.<ref>{{cite news |title=Protests in Belarus continue despite challenger's departure |url=https://apnews.com/dc7ec04bfb73782a094c18ed4e63feaa |work=Associated Press |date=11 August 2020}}</ref><!-- Russian and EU leaders warned of any external interference in Belarus's internal affairs.<ref>{{cite news |title=EU leaders to warn Russia against Belarus interference |url=https://euobserver.com/foreign/149166 |work=EUobserver In 2019, Lukashenko had bilateral talks in |date=18 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Putin warns western leaders over 'meddling' in Belarus |url=https://www.ft.com/content/f96fdf91-6826-4af2-923d-ff14947fcd15 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/f96fdf91-6826-4af2-923d-ff14947fcd15 |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |work=Financial Times |date=18 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Russian FM in Syria, meets Assad in first visit since 2012 |publisher=Associated Press |date=7 September 2020 |url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/russian-fm-syria-meets-assad-115535854.html |access-date=7 September 2020 }}</ref>--> Neighbouring countries Poland and Lithuania do not recognize Lukashenko as the legitimate president of Belarus and the Lithuanian government has allotted a residence for main opposition candidate [[Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya]] and other members of the Belarusian opposition in [[Vilnius]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Belarus asks Lithuania to extradite opposition leader Tsikhanouskaya |date=5 March 2021 |url=https://www.euronews.com/2021/03/05/belarus-asks-lithuania-to-extradite-opposition-leader-tsikhanouskaya |publisher=Euronews |access-date=13 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Lithuania to Belarus: 'Rather watch hell freeze over' than deliver Tsikhanouskaya |url=https://www.dw.com/en/lithuania-to-belarus-rather-watch-hell-freeze-over-than-deliver-tsikhanouskaya/a-56787250 |publisher=Deutsche Welle |access-date=13 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Headquarters of Tsikhanouskaya, Coordination Council and National Anti-Crisis Management |date=7 January 2021 |url=https://www.voiceofbelarus.com/headquarters-of-tsikhanouskaya/ |publisher=Voice of Belarus |access-date=13 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Belarus protests: Why Poland is backing the opposition |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-54090389 |work=BBC News |date=10 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Belarus opposition leader: Foreign mediation may be needed |url=https://apnews.com/c70e47ca9c2c3526324c89982c1bac26 |work=Associated Press |date=9 September 2020}}</ref> Neither is Lukashenko recognized as the legitimate president of Belarus by the European Union, Canada, the United Kingdom or the United States.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 August 2020 |title=El Pais interview with HR/VP Borrell: "Lukashenko is like Maduro. We do not recognize him but we must deal with him" |url= https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage/84346/el-pais-interview-hrvp-borrell-%E2%80%9Clukashenko-maduro-we-do-not-recognize-him-he-must-deal-him%E2%80%9D_en |publisher=eeas.europa.eu}}</ref><ref>Dave Lawler, [https://www.axios.com/us-lukashenko-president-belarus-353ed235-98f7-446f-919a-6a6cdab81975.html "U.S. no longer recognizes Lukashenko as the legitimate president of Belarus"], ''Axios''. 24 September 2020.</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/belarus-election-result-2020-protest-uk-lukashenko-dominic-raab-latest-a9673596.html |title=Belarus election: UK refuses to recognise the result and demands international investigation into 'grisly repression' of protests |website=The Independent |location= London |date=17 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/canada-denounces-lukashenko-inauguration-belarus-1.5736840 |date=24 September 2020 |title=Canada denounces Lukashenko's inauguration in Belarus, preparing sanctions over human rights violations |work=CBC News}}</ref> The European Union, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States have all imposed sanctions against Belarus because of the rigged election and political oppression during the ongoing protests in the country.<ref>{{Cite news |date=24 August 2020 |title= U.S., EU Sanction Belarus in Coordinated Western Action |url= https://www.wsj.com/articles/eu-leaders-agree-to-adopt-sanctions-on-belarus-officials-11601596533 |newspaper=The Wall Street Journal |location=New York}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belarus-election-sanctions-idUSKBN26K2R1|title=Britain and Canada impose sanctions on Belarus leader Lukashenko |newspaper=Reuters |date=29 September 2020 |last1=Ljunggren |first1=Josh Smith}}</ref> [[International sanctions during the Russian invasion of Ukraine|Further sanctions]] were imposed in 2022 following the [[Belarusian involvement in the Russian invasion of Ukraine|country's role and complicity]] in the Russian invasion of Ukraine; Russian troops were allowed to stage part of the invasion from Belarusian territory.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 March 2022 |title=Ukraine conflict: UK sanctions Belarus for role in Russian invasion |work=BBC News |url= https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-60580294 |access-date=29 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Guarascio |first=Francesco |date=2 March 2022 |title=EU bans 70% of Belarus exports to bloc with new sanctions over Ukraine invasion |work=[[Reuters]] |url= https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/eu-approves-new-sanctions-against-belarus-over-ukraine-invasion-source-2022-03-02/ |access-date=29 March 2022}}</ref> Sanctions were targeted towards not only corporate offices and individual officers of government, but also private individuals who work in the [[state-owned enterprise]] industrial sector.<ref name="efrusi">{{cite news |last1=Ferris |first1=Emily |title=Could Russia's Reliance on Belarus be its Soft Underbelly? |url=https://static.rusi.org/could-russias-reliance-on-belarus-be-its-soft-underbelly.pdf |publisher=The Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies |date=12 January 2023}}</ref> [[Norway]] and [[Japan]] have joined the sanctions regime which aims to isolate Belarus from the international supply chain. Most major Belarusian banks are also under restrictions.<ref name=efrusi/>