Editing Battle of Marathon (section)

== Prelude ==
[[File:Battle of Marathon Initial Situation.png|thumb|Initial disposition of forces at Marathon]]
[[File:Marshlands of Marathon, with Pentelikon mountains in the background.jpg|thumb|Marshlands at Marathon.]]
The Persians sailed down the coast of Attica, and landed at the bay of Marathon, about {{convert|17|mi|km|order=flip}} northeast of Athens, on the advice of the exiled Athenian tyrant Hippias (who had accompanied the expedition).<ref>Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=6.102 VI, 102] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230162516/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&redirect=true |date=2022-12-30 }}</ref> Under the guidance of [[Miltiades]], the Athenian general with the greatest experience of fighting the Persians, the Athenian army marched quickly to block the two exits from the plain of Marathon, and prevent the Persians moving inland.<ref name = h187/><ref>Cornelius Nepos, Miltiades, IV</ref> At the same time, Athens's greatest runner, [[Pheidippides]] (or Philippides in some accounts) had been sent to Sparta to request that the Spartan army march to the aid of Athens.<ref>Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231011;layout=;loc=6.106.1 VI, 105] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230162517/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&redirect=true |date=2022-12-30 }}</ref> Pheidippides arrived during the festival of [[Carneia]], a sacrosanct period of peace, and was informed that the Spartan army could not march to war until the full moon rose; Athens could not expect reinforcement for at least ten days.<ref name = h187>Holland, pp. 187–90</ref> The Athenians would have to hold out at Marathon for the time being, although they were reinforced by the full muster of 1,000 [[hoplite]]s from the small city of [[Plataea]], a gesture which did much to steady the nerves of the Athenians<ref name = h187/> and won unending Athenian gratitude to Plataea.

For approximately five days the armies therefore confronted each other across the plain of Marathon in stalemate.<ref name = h187/> The flanks of the Athenian camp were protected by either a grove of trees or an ''abbatis'' of stakes (depending on the exact reading).<ref>Cornelius Nepos, Miltiades, VI</ref><ref name = L56>Lazenby, p. 56</ref> Since every day brought the arrival of the Spartans closer, the delay worked in favor of the Athenians.<ref name = h187/> There were ten Athenian ''[[strategos|strategoi]]'' (generals) at Marathon, elected by each of the ten [[phyle|tribes]] that the Athenians were divided into; Miltiades was one of these.<ref>Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231009;layout=;loc=6.104.1 VI, 103] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230162517/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&redirect=true |date=2022-12-30 }}</ref> In addition, in overall charge, was the War-[[Archon]] ([[polemarch]]), [[Callimachus (polemarch)|Callimachus]], who had been elected by the whole citizen body.<ref name = VI109>Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231009;layout=;loc=6.104.1 VI, 109] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230162517/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&redirect=true |date=2022-12-30 }}</ref> Herodotus suggests that command rotated between the ''strategoi'', each taking in turn a day to command the army.<ref name = VI110>Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231016;layout=;loc=6.109.1 VI, 110] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230163030/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&redirect=true |date=2022-12-30 }}</ref> He further suggests that each ''strategos'', on his day in command, instead deferred to Miltiades.<ref name = VI110/> In Herodotus's account, Miltiades is keen to attack the Persians (despite knowing that the Spartans are coming to aid the Athenians), but strangely, chooses to wait until his actual day of command to attack.<ref name = VI110/> This passage is undoubtedly problematic; the Athenians had little to gain by attacking before the Spartans arrived,<ref name = L59/> and there is no real evidence of this rotating generalship.<ref name = L57>Lazenby, pp. 57–59</ref> There does, however, seem to have been a delay between the Athenian arrival at Marathon and the battle; Herodotus, who evidently believed that Miltiades was eager to attack, may have made a mistake while seeking to explain this delay.<ref name = L57/>

As is discussed [[#Strategic and tactical considerations|below]], the reason for the delay was probably simply that neither the Athenians nor the Persians were willing to risk battle initially.<ref name = L59>Lazenby, pp. 59–62</ref><ref name = "h191">Holland, pp. 191–95</ref> This then raises the question of why the battle occurred when it did. Herodotus explicitly tells us that the Greeks attacked the Persians (and the other sources confirm this), but it is not clear why they did this before the arrival of the Spartans.<ref name = L59/> There are two main theories to explain this.<ref name = L59/>

The first theory is that the Persian cavalry left Marathon for an unspecified reason, and that the Greeks moved to take advantage of this by attacking. This theory is based on the absence of any mention of cavalry in Herodotus' account of the battle, and an entry in the ''[[Suda]]'' dictionary.<ref name = L59/> The entry ''χωρίς ἱππέων'' ("without cavalry") is explained thus: <blockquote>The cavalry left. When Datis surrendered and was ready for retreat, the Ionians climbed the trees and gave the Athenians the signal that the cavalry had left. And when Miltiades realized that, he attacked and thus won. From there comes the above-mentioned quote, which is used when someone breaks ranks before battle.<ref>[[Suda]], entry ''Without cavalry''</ref></blockquote> There are many variations of this theory, but perhaps the most prevalent is that the cavalry were completing the time-consuming process of re-embarking on the ships, and were to be sent by sea to attack (undefended) Athens in the rear, whilst the rest of the Persians pinned down the Athenian army at Marathon.<ref name = h187/> This theory therefore utilises Herodotus' suggestion that after Marathon, the Persian army began to re-embark, intending to sail around Cape Sounion to attack Athens directly.<ref name = VI115>Herodotus [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0016.tlg001.perseus-eng1:6.115.1 VI, 115] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230163022/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0016.tlg001.perseus-eng1:6.115.1 |date=2022-12-30 }}</ref> Thus, this re-embarcation would have occurred ''before'' the battle (and indeed have triggered the battle).<ref name = h191/>

The second theory is simply that the battle occurred because the Persians finally moved to attack the Athenians.<ref name = L59/> Although this theory has the Persians moving to the ''strategic'' offensive, this can be reconciled with the traditional account of the Athenians attacking the Persians by assuming that, seeing the Persians advancing, the Athenians took the ''tactical'' offensive, and attacked them.<ref name = L59/> Obviously, it cannot be firmly established which theory (if either) is correct. However, both theories imply that there was some kind of Persian activity which occurred on or about the fifth day which ultimately triggered the battle.<ref name = L59/> It is also possible that both theories are correct: when the Persians sent the cavalry by ship to attack Athens, they simultaneously sent their infantry to attack at Marathon, triggering the Greek counterattack.

=== Date of the battle ===
Herodotus mentions for several events a date in the [[lunisolar calendar]], of which each Greek city-state used a variant.  Astronomical computation allows us to derive an absolute date in the [[proleptic Julian calendar]] which is much used by historians as the chronological frame. [[Philipp August Böckh]] in 1855  concluded that the battle took place on September 12, 490 BC<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gongaki, Preka-Papadema, Kalachanis,Antonopoulos |date=2 December 2021 |title=ASTRONOMICAL CALCULATION OF THE DATING THE HISTORICAL BATTLES OF MARATHON, THERMOPYLAE AND SALAMIS BASED ON HERODOTUS’ DESCRIPTION |url=https://sci-cult.com/wp-content/uploads/7.2/7_2_6_Gongaki_et_al.pdf |journal=Scientific Culture |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=81-99}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-09-12 |title=September 12 Battle Was Seed of the Modern Marathon |url=https://www.runnersworld.com/races-places/a20814099/september-12-battle-was-seed-of-the-modern-marathon/ |access-date=2025-04-12 |website=Runner's World |language=en-US}}</ref> in the Julian calendar, and this is the conventionally accepted date.<ref name = date/>  However, this depends on when exactly the Spartans held their festival and it is possible that the Spartan calendar was one month ahead of that of Athens. In that case the battle took place on August 12, 490&nbsp;BC.<ref name = date>D.W. Olson ''et al.'', pp. 34–41</ref>