Editing Battle of Benevento (section)

== Prelude ==
Charles reached [[Rome]] in May 1265, but was temporarily halted by the need to obtain financing for his military operations.  Manfred, however, instead of vigorously taking countermeasures, spent his time hunting. He obviously assumed that the Ghibellines in the northern Italian cities would already have stopped the advance of the enemy.  For the rest he trusted the fighting strength of his German knights and Saracen horsemen. He did not take the field against him until January 1266, when Charles' main army had crossed the Alps. Alarmed by the ease with which many towns and castles surrendered to the French and by desertions among his followers, Manfred sought to bring Charles to battle as swiftly as possible, fearing further treachery. Charles attempted to turn Manfred's position at [[Capua]] by a perilous crossing of the [[Apennine Mountains|Apennines]] which wrecked his supply line; but Manfred had intelligence of his move and waited in a strong position across the [[Calore Irpino|River Calore]], which could only be crossed by a single bridge.

=== Ghibelline forces ===
Manfred's army was composed of very heterogeneous elements. His infantry was essentially composed of [[Saracen]] archers set up in the fore. Behind them was his first battle, the best of his troops, consisting of 1,200 German mercenary knights and men-at-arms, clad not only in the usual mail-shirt and gambeson, but also [[Coat of plates|coats of plates]], a type of armour that was just beginning to come into fashion. They were commanded by his cousin [[Giordano d'Anglano]] and Galvano of Anglona. The second battle consisted of around 1,000 Italian mercenary cavalry and 300 to 400 Saracen light horsemen, commanded by his uncle Galvano Lancia.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Oman|first=Charles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ue5hyJlCGzcC&q=charles+oman+battle+of+muret&pg=PT553|title=A History of the Art of War: The Middle Ages from the Fourth to the Fourteenth Century|year=2012|publisher=Tales End Press|isbn=978-1-62358-003-2|pages=556|language=en}}</ref> The third battle consisted of the barons of Manfred's kingdom, and numbered 1,400 knights and men-at-arms, under his personal command. Manfred stayed with the Italo-Norman noblemen and they did not form his reserve for nothing. He distrusted them.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Oman|first=Charles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ue5hyJlCGzcC&q=charles+oman+battle+of+muret&pg=PT553|title=A History of the Art of War: The Middle Ages from the Fourth to the Fourteenth Century|date=2012|publisher=Tales End Press|isbn=978-1-62358-003-2|pages=556–557|language=en}}</ref>

Manfred's forces enjoyed a slight numerical superiority and a strong defensive position across the Calore.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tucker|first=Spencer C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_tSnygvbIC&q=spencer+tucker+battle+of+muret&pg=PA269|title=A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East [6 volumes]: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East|date=2009|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-672-5|pages=286|language=en}}</ref>

=== Guelph forces ===
Charles' army consisted of 600 mounted knights, 2,400 men-at-arms and mounted sergeants, 600 crossbowmen, 3,900 heavy infantry and 4,500 light infantry, totalling around 12,000 men.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Esposito |first1=Gabriele |title=Armies of the Medieval Italian Wars 1125–1325 |date=2019 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1472833426 |page=39 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pHN_DwAAQBAJ |access-date=4 September 2019 |language=en}}</ref> It was probably above all the prospect of loot that prompted numerous French nobles to come to Lyon, where Charles had assembled his army in autumn 1265.

His cavalry was also divided into three [[Battle (formation)|battles]]. The first battle consisted of 900 [[Provence|Provençal]] knights and sergeants<ref>{{cite book |last1=Connolly |first1=Peter |last2=Gillingham |first2=John |last3=Lazenby |first3=John |title=The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Warfare |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1135936747 |page=39 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aLYoDAAAQBAJ |access-date=3 September 2019 |language=en}}</ref> commanded by Marshal of France Hugh of Mirepoix and [[Philip of Montfort, Lord of Castres]].<ref name="Runciman">Steven Runciman, ''The Sicilian Vespers: A History of the Mediterranean World in the Later Thirteenth Century'', (Cambridge University Press, 2000), 92–94.</ref> Behind them was the second battle, which consisted of 1,000 knights and men-at-arms from Southern and Central France under the personal command of Charles; their chiefs were the Count of Vendôme, the Bishop of Auxerre, Guy de Monfort, Peter de Beaumont and Guy de Mello.<ref name="Runciman"/> Finally, the third battle consisted of men from Northern France and [[County of Flanders|Flanders]] under Grand Constable [[Grand Constable of France|Gilles de Trasignies]] and [[Robert III, Count of Flanders|Robert of Béthune]], the heir of the county of Flanders.<ref name="Runciman"/><ref>Gravett, Christopher and Turner, Graham. "German Medieval Armies: 1000–1300." Osprey Military Men-at-Arms 310. (Oxford: Osprey Military, 1997) p. 38</ref> In addition, the invaders numbered 400 Italian men-at-arms of the Guelf faction led by the Florentine Guido Guerra. It is unknown where exactly they stood; apparently they were not in the reserve but struck in with the second line at the moment of contact. Charles ordered his men-at-arms to have a couple of foot soldiers behind them whose task would be to aid the horsemen of his army in case they were dismounted and to slay those of the enemy who were overthrown.<ref name="Oman 558">{{Cite book|last=Oman|first=Charles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ue5hyJlCGzcC&q=charles+oman+battle+of+muret&pg=PT553|title=A History of the Art of War: The Middle Ages from the Fourth to the Fourteenth Century|date=2012|publisher=Tales End Press|isbn=978-1-62358-003-2|pages=558|language=en}}</ref> The rest of the infantry and crossbowmen were thrown in front of the line to skirmish with their Saracen counterparts.

Charles had the advantage of leading an army which was practically homogeneous; save the few Italians, all were vassals of the French and Provençal crowns. In addition, beyond the low esteem in which both sides held their foot-soldiery, Charles' horsemen were fairly equal to each other in military worth, something Manfred did not have the luck to benefit from.<ref name="Oman 558"/>