Editing Antoni Kępiński (section)

==His work==
===Auschwitz syndrome===
Due to his involvement, in the 1950s, in the rehabilitation programme for former concentration camp inmates, Kępiński may be regarded as the pioneer of the [[posttraumatic stress disorder|PTSD]] research.<ref name="schochow2016">{{cite journal|last1=Schochow|first1=Maximilian|last2=Steger|first2=Florian|title=Antoni Kepiński (1918–1972), pioneer of post-traumatic stress disorder|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|volume=208|issue=6|year=2016|pages=590|doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.115.168237|pmid=27251694|doi-access=free}}</ref> The idea of such research originated in the mind of Kępiński's colleague [[Stanisław Kłodziński]].<ref name="kepinski1972">{{cite book|last1=Kępiński|first1=Antoni|title=Rhythm of life (in Polish)|date=1972|publisher=Wydawnictwo Literackie|location=Kraków}}
</ref> Together with fellow researchers from the Psychiatric Clinic of the Medical Academy in Cracow they examined large number of [[Auschwitz-Birkenau]] survivors and mapped out the clinical picture of the concentration camp syndrome which they called the ''KZ-Syndrome''. As noted by psychiatrist Krzysztof Rutkowski, the same syndrome was later investigated in other countries (for example in the [[United States of America|United States]] after the [[Vietnam War]] in the 1970s), and is currently known as the [[posttraumatic stress disorder|post-traumatic stress disorder]].<ref name="jurszo2018">{{cite web|last1=Jurszo|first1=Robert|title=Syndrom obozowy mógł latami trwać uśpiony w psychice więźnia|url=https://psychiatria.mp.pl/aktualnosci/136620,syndrom-obozowy-mogl-latami-trwac-uspiony-w-psychice-wieznia|website=psychiatria.mp.pl|access-date=5 May 2018}}</ref>

===The specificity of psychiatric examination===
Co-workers and biographers of Kępiński emphasize that the key characteristic of his professional activity was his unique approach to the patient, inspired by the [[philosophy of dialogue]].<ref name="bulaczek2013" /><ref name="kokoszka2012">{{cite journal|last1=Kokoszka|first1=Andrzej|title=Dialog according to Antoni Kępiński: comments to the session "The patient as the person" (in Polish)|journal=Psychoterapia|date=2012|volume=4|issue=163|pages=47–54|url=http://www.psychoterapiaptp.pl/uploads/PT_4_2012/Kokoszka47_Psychoterapia_4_2012.pdf|access-date=2018-04-29|archive-date=2016-07-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160708051807/http://psychoterapiaptp.pl/uploads/PT_4_2012/Kokoszka47_Psychoterapia_4_2012.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Part of his writings is devoted to peculiarities and subtleties of the psychiatric examination. In his view, diagnosis and therapy should not be based solely on logical analysis, as the inclusion of the [[emotion]]al dimension is indispensable in [[psychology]]. Therefore, the therapist should form an emotional relationship with the patient, based on [[empathy]] and trust.<ref name="bulaczek2013" /> The hierarchy in such relationship should be more or less horizontal, as both parties can learn a lot from each other. The general attitude of the therapist should encourage the patient to share experiences, feelings and thoughts without the fear of being judged.<ref name="kokoszka2012" /> In such way, the doctor obtains the chance to better understand the structure and beauty of the inner world of the patient and to establish an appropriate base for the diagnosis. Wearing masks, assuming the position of superiority and being inauthentic during the therapeutic interaction are the most significant mistakes made by therapists.<ref name="kokoszka2012" />

===Axiological psychiatry===
In [[philosophy]], [[axiology]] is the theory of value.<ref name="stanford2018">{{cite web|last1=Schroeder|first1=Mark|title=Value Theory|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/value-theory/|website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=29 April 2018}}</ref> According to Kępiński, the problem of value is of the greatest importance in psychiatry. It has two dimensions. Firstly, there are certain ethical values which should guide the doctors in their medical practice. Secondly, the therapeutic process in psychiatry should lead to reorganization or rebuilding of the hierarchy of values in the patient.<ref name="bulaczek2013">{{cite journal|last1=Bulaczek|first1=Aleksandra|title=Relations patient – doctor in axiological psychiatry of Antoni Kępiński (in Polish)|journal=Studia Ecologiae et Bioethicae UKSW|date=2013|volume=11|issue=2|pages=9–28|doi=10.21697/seb.2013.11.2.01 |url=http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.desklight-37c5d3a1-9ee9-49e4-b9d1-287df1ef3a58/c/tom_11_2_1_aleksandra_bulaczek_relacje_pacjent_lekarz_w_psychiatrii_aksjologicznej_antoniego_kepinskiego.pdf}}</ref>

Kępiński's bioethics were derived directly from The [[Hippocratic Oath]]. He restated the widely held view, that the main goal of the psychiatrist is to bring relief to patients. Being a physician is a type of mission or calling rather than an ordinary paid occupation. A key value to be upheld is hope. Without it, the actions undertaken by the doctors can become meaningless. Moreover, patients can sometimes recognise perplexity in the face of their physician. Hence whether improvement is realistic should always guide the medical profession.<ref name="bulaczek2013" />

Another axiological theme in Kępiński's psychiatry was his view on the nature of psychoses, especially [[schizophrenia]]. According to that view, psychosis may be seen as distortions of the hierarchy of values which is one of the key aspects of the [[information metabolism]] process occurring in the organism of the patient.<ref name="schochow2016"/> He contended that therapeutic work could lead to the formation of a healthy hierarchy of values, allowing the patient to interact with reality in a more balanced manner.<ref name="bulaczek2013" /> His axiological take on psychopathology was seen as something unique and new in Polish psychiatry. It opened the way for new directions of research, such that some reviewers recognised Kępiński's works as the foundation for a new branch of psychiatry.<ref name="bulaczek2013" />

===Information metabolism===
{{main|Information metabolism}}
Information metabolism is a [[psychology|psychological]] theory of interaction between biological organisms and their environment based on [[Information processing (psychology)|information processing]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bielecki|first1=Andrzej|title=The general entity of life: a cybernetic approach.|journal=Biological Cybernetics|volume=109|issue=3|year=2015|pages=401–419|doi=10.1007/s00422-015-0652-8|pmid=25985758|s2cid=253887347 }}</ref> The most detailed description of information metabolism concept was given by Kępiński in his book ''Melancholy'' (1974).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kępiński|first1=Antoni|title=Melancholy (In Polish)|date=2014|publisher=Wydawnictwo Literackie|location=Kraków}}</ref> In this model, the living organism is considered an [[open system (systems theory)|open system]] as understood by [[Ludwig von Bertalanffy|von Bertalanffy]]. Living beings are characterized by ability to increase and maintain their own [[negentropy]] - an idea popularized in [[Schrödinger]]'s book ''[[What is life?]]''.<ref name="kepinski1972"/> This ability makes the difference between them and inanimate objects which obey the [[second law of thermodynamics|increase of entropy principle]]. The body retains the same basic structure, although its building elements (molecules) are replaced quite frequently in [[metabolism|anabolic and catabolic]] processes. The energy derived from food and oxygen is spent on securing the integrity of the organism. To refer to anabolic and catabolic processes in cells Kępiński used the term "energy metabolism". Any activity of an organism is an informational sign to other beings. Activities in the physical realm are reactions to changes perceived in the external or internal reality of the organism. Bearing that in mind, the [[Psyche (psychology)|psyche]] can be seen as the information-processing unit. As emphasized by Kępiński, psychological structure of an individual remains relatively stable despite an ongoing exchange of information, analogically to the physical structure subject to energy metabolism.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kępiński|first1=Antoni|title=Schizophrenia (In Polish)|date=2012|publisher=Wydawnictwo Literackie|isbn=978-83-08-04947-1}}</ref>
In his books, Kępiński explained various mental conditions as disorders and imbalances of the information metabolism in general and its inherent value structure in particular.<ref name="schochow2016"/> During his life, Kępiński mentioned that his model of information metabolism is not complete.<ref name="struzik1987">{{cite journal|last1=Struzik|first1=Tadeusz|title=Kepiński's Information Metabolism, Carnot's Principle and Information Theory|journal=International Journal of Neuroscience|date=1987|volume=36|issue=1–2|pages=105–111|doi=10.3109/00207458709002144|pmid=3654085}}</ref> The work upon it was interrupted by his illness and death.

===Kępiński as philosopher===
As a young medic, Kępiński was drawn to the works of [[Carl Jung]] and subjected the more "mystical" aspects to a critique which inspired him to launch on his own clinical and philosophical quest.<ref>Blutner R., Hochnadel E., "Two qubits for CG Jung's theory of personality", Cognitive Systems Research, vol. 11, no 3, 2010, p. 243-259</ref> Despite being essentially of a scientific turn of mind, Kępiński's works invoked great interest among Polish philosophers, most notably [[Józef Tischner]], who greatly appreciated his [[anthropology|anthropological]] insights.<ref name="bulaczek2013" /> Kępiński was not afraid of hypothesizing about the most difficult philosophical problems such as the nature of life, the problem of [[free will]], [[consciousness]] and human autonomy. On the other hand, he was skeptical about methods and theories which lacked a sufficiently solid scientific basis, e.g. [[psychoanalysis]], and rejected various forms of what he dismissed as "magical thinking" in psychology.<ref name="zawila2018">{{cite web|last1=Zawiła-Niedźwiecki|first1=Jakub|title=Kępiński, philosophy of mind, an inquiry into some limits of patient's autonomy|url=https://www.academia.edu/20222967|website=academia.edu|access-date=25 March 2018}}</ref> Kępiński argued that human [[ethics]] are not socially-constructed but rooted in biology and their prerequisites can be found in the animal world.<ref name="kepinski1977">{{cite book|last1=Kępiński|first1=Antoni|title=Anxiety (in Polish)|date=1977|publisher=Państwowy Zakład Wydawnictw Lekarskich|location=Warszawa}}</ref> He strongly rejected every form of ideology and extensively commented on the destructive impact of ideologies on human history.<ref name="kepinski1972" /> Tischner emphasized that many interesting ideas found in Kępiński's works are taken from other thinkers. He recognized [[information metabolism]] and axiological psychiatry as two truly original ideas of Kępiński.<ref name="kokoszka2012" /> Kępiński's disciple - psychiatrist Jacek Bomba - noted that the greatest value of his information metabolism theory is its quality of being an accurate and comprehensive synthesis of knowledge from [[neurophysiology]], [[psychology]], [[social science]] and [[medicine]].<ref name="ceklarz2018">{{cite journal|last1=Ceklarz|first1=Jan|title=Revision of Antoni Kępiński's concept of information metabolism (in Polish)|journal=Psychiatr. Pol.|date=2018|volume=52|issue=1|pages=165–173|doi=10.12740/PP/65751|pmid=29704423|url=http://www.psychiatriapolska.pl/uploads/images/PP_1_2018/165Ceklarz_PsychiatrPol2018v52i1.pdf|doi-access=free|access-date=2018-04-29|archive-date=2019-08-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819070636/http://www.psychiatriapolska.pl/uploads/images/PP_1_2018/165Ceklarz_PsychiatrPol2018v52i1.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Kępiński maintained a good relationship with [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenologist]], [[Roman Ingarden]], a prominent  disciple of [[Edmund Husserl]]. The influence of phenomenology is apparent in his approach to human psychology.<ref name="kokoszka2012" /> It may be regarded as his second favorite analytical tool, next to the scientific approach.<ref name="kokoszka2012" />