Editing Antisemitism in Islam (section)

==Jews in the Quran==
{{further|Early history of Islam|Historical reliability of the Quran|Historicity of Muhammad|Sura Bani Isra'il}}

===No mention of Jews during the Meccan period===
Jews are not mentioned at all in verses dating from the [[Muhammad before Medina|Meccan period]].<ref name="Stillman2">Stillman, Norman (2005). ''Antisemitism: A historical encyclopedia of prejudice and persecution''. Vol. 1. pp. 356–61</ref> According to [[Bernard Lewis]], the attention given to Jews is relatively insignificant.<ref>Lewis (1999) p. 127</ref>

===Terms referring to Jews===
====Bani Israil====
The Quran makes 44 specific references to the ''Banū Isrāʾīl'' (the [[Children of Israel]]).<ref name="Yahud" /><ref name="Crone 2016">{{cite book |author-last=Crone |author-first=Patricia |author-link=Patricia Crone |chapter=Jewish Christianity and the Qurʾān (Part I) |year=2016 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_wpRDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA237 |editor1-last=Crone |editor1-first=Patricia |editor2-last=Siurua |editor2-first=Hanna |editor1-link=Patricia Crone |title=The Qurʾānic Pagans and Related Matters: Collected Studies in Three Volumes, Volume 1 |series=Islamic History and Civilization |volume=129 |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |pages=237–276 |doi=10.1163/9789004319288_010 |isbn=978-90-04-31228-9 |lccn=2016010221}}</ref> although the term might refer to both Jews and [[Arab Christians|Christians]] as a single religious lineage.<ref name="Crone 2016"/> In the Quran (2:140), Jews (''Yahūdi'') are considered a religious group, while ''Banū Isrāʾīl'' are an ethnic group.{{citation needed|date=December 2023}}

====Yahud and Yahudi====
The Arabic term ''Yahūd'' and ''Yahūdi'' (Jew, Jews), occur 11 times, and the verb ''hāda'' (meaning "to be a Jew/Jewish") occurs 10 times.<ref>Jews and Judaism, Encyclopedia of the Quran</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=September 2015}} According to Khalid Durán, the negative passages use ''Yahūd'', while the positive references speak mainly of the ''Banū Isrāʾīl''.<ref>Khalid Durán, with Abdelwahab Hechichep, ''Children of Abraham: an introduction to Islam for Jews'', American Jewish Committee/Harriet and Robert Heilbrunn Institute for International Interreligious Understanding, KTAV Publishing House, Inc., 2001 p. 112</ref>

===Negative references to Jews===
The references in the Quran to Jews are interpreted in different ways. According to Frederick M. Schweitzer and Marvin Perry, these references are "mostly negative".<ref name=Schweitzer266/> According to Tahir Abbas, the general references to Jews are favorable, with only those addressed to particular groups of Jews containing harsh criticism.<ref name="Tahir">Abbas, pp. 178–179</ref>

===Adoption of Jewish practices===
According to [[Bernard Lewis]] and some other scholars, the earliest verses of the Quran were largely sympathetic to Jews. Muhammad admired them as monotheists and saw them as natural adherents to the new faith, and Jewish practices helped model early Islamic behavior, such as [[Salah times|midday prayer]], [[Friday prayer]], [[Ramadan]] fasting (considered to be modeled after [[Yom Kippur]]), and most famously the fact that until 623 CE Muslims [[Qibla|prayed toward Jerusalem]], not Mecca.<ref>Rodinson, p. 159</ref>

===Constitution of Medina===
After his flight (''[[Hijra (Islam)|al-hijra]]'') from Mecca in 622 CE, Muhammad with his followers settled in [[Medina|Yathrib]], subsequently renamed ''Medina al-Nabi'' ('City of the Prophet') where he drew up a '[[social contract]]',<ref>Ali Khan, 'Commentary on the Constitution of Medina', in Hisham M. Ramadan (ed.) ''Understanding Islamic law: from classical to contemporary'', Rowman Altamira, 2006 pp. 205–210</ref> the [[Constitution of Medina]].<ref>Michael Lecker, [https://academic.oup.com/jis/article-abstract/19/2/251/671860 "''The ‘Constitution of Medina’: Muhammad's First Legal Document"''], Studies in late antiquity and early Islam SLAEI vol.23, Darwin Press, 2004, passim</ref> This contract, known as "the Leaf" (''ṣaḥīfa'') upheld the peaceful coexistence between Muslims, Jews, and Christians, defining them all, under certain conditions, as constituting the ''[[Ummah]]'' or "community" of that city, and granting freedom of religious thought and practice to all.<ref>Pratt, p. 121, citing John Esposito, ''What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam'', Oxford University Press, New York p. 73</ref> Alongside the 200-odd [[Muhajirun|emigrants from Mecca]] (''Muhājirūn'') who had followed Muhammad, the population of  Yathrib/Medina consisted of [[Ansar (Islam)|the Faithful of Medina]] (''Anṣār'', "the Helpers"), [[Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia|Arab Pagans]], three Jewish tribes, and some Christians.<ref>Pratt, p. 122</ref>

The foundational constitution sought to establish, for the first time in history according to Ali Khan, a formal agreement securing [[Interfaith dialogue|interfaith]] coexistence, with articles requiring mutual support in the defense of the city:<ref>Rodinson, pp. 152–3</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=Those Jews who follow us are entitled to our aid and support so long as they shall not have wronged us or lent assistance (to any enemies) against us|source=paragraph 16}}{{Blockquote|text=To the Jews their own expenses and to the Muslims theirs. They shall help one another in the event of any attack on the people covered by this document. There shall be sincere friendship, exchange of good counsel, fair conduct and no treachery between them.|source=paragraph 37}}

The three local Jewish tribes were the [[Banu Nadir]], the [[Banu Qurayza]], and the [[Banu Qaynuqa]]. According to Rodinson, Muhammad had no prejudice against them, and appears to have regarded his own message as substantially the same as that received by Jews on Sinai.<ref>Rodinson, p. 158</ref> But Reuven Firestone claims that tribal politics, and Muhammad's deep frustration at Jewish refusals to accept his prophethood,<ref>According to Reuven Firestone, Muhammad expected the Jews of Medina to accept his prophethood since Jews were respected by Arabs as 'a wise and ancient community of monotheists with a long prophetic tradition'. This rejection was a major blow to his authority in Medina, and relations soon deteriorated: Firestone, p. 33</ref> quickly led to a break with all three.

====Hostility between Muslims and the Banu Qaynuqa====
The Banu Qaynuqa were expelled from Medina in 624 CE. In March 624 CE, Muslims led by Muhammad defeated the [[Mecca]]ns of the [[Quraysh (tribe)|Banu Quraysh]] tribe in the [[Battle of Badr]]. Ibn Ishaq writes that a dispute broke out between the Muslims and the Banu Qaynuqa (the allies of the [[Khazraj]] tribe) soon afterwards. When a Muslim woman visited a jeweler's shop in the Qaynuqa marketplace, she was pestered to uncover her hair. The goldsmith, a Jew, pinned her clothing such that, upon getting up, she was stripped naked. A Muslim man coming upon the resulting commotion killed the shopkeeper in retaliation. A mob of Jews from the Qaynuqa tribe then pounced on the Muslim man and killed him. This escalated to a chain of revenge killings, and enmity grew between Muslims and the Banu Qaynuqa.<ref name="Ishaq1">Guillaume 363, Stillman 122, ibn Kathir 2</ref>

[[Historiography of early Islam|Traditional Islamic sources]] view these episodes as a violation of the Constitution of Medina.<ref name="Ishaq1"/> Muhammad himself regarded this as ''[[casus belli]]''. However, [[Islamic studies|Western scholars and historians]] do not find in these events the underlying reason for Muhammad's attack on the Qaynuqa.<ref name="Watt 1956, p. 209">Watt (1956), p. 209.</ref> Fred Donner argues that Muhammad turned against the Banu Qaynuqa because as artisans and traders, the latter were in close contact with Meccan merchants.<ref>Donner, Fred M.. "[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1478-1913.1979.tb03388.x Muhammad's Political Consolidation in Arabia up to the Conquest of Mecca]". Muslim World 69: 229–247, 1979.</ref> Weinsinck views the episodes cited by the Muslim historians used to justify their expulsion, such as a Jewish goldsmith humiliating a Muslim woman, as having no more than anecdotal value. He writes that the Jews had assumed a contentious attitude towards Muhammad, and as a group possessing substantial independent power, they posed a great danger. Wensinck thus concludes that Muhammad, strengthened by the victory at the [[Battle of Badr]], soon resolved to eliminate the Jewish opposition to himself.<ref>Wensinck, A. J. "Kaynuka, banu". Encyclopaedia of Islam</ref> [[Norman Stillman]] also believes that Muhammad decided to move against the Jews of Medina after being strengthened in the wake of the Battle of Badr.<ref>Stillman, Norman. The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1979. {{ISBN|0-8276-0198-0}}</ref>

Muhammad then approached the Banu Qaynuqa, gathering them in the market place and warned them to stop their hostility lest they suffer the same fate that happened to the Quraish at Badr. He also told them to accept Islam saying he was a prophet sent by God as per their scriptures. The tribe responded by mocking Muhammad's followers for accepting him as a prophet and also mocked their victory at Badr saying the Quraish had no knowledge of war. They then warned him that if he ever fought with them, he will know that they were real men.<ref name="Ishaq363">Guillaume 363</ref> This response was viewed as a declaration of war.<ref name="NomMu">Nomani 90–91, al-Mubarakpuri 239</ref> Muhammad then besieged the Banu Qaynuqa<ref name= "Stillman 123">Stillman 123</ref> after which the tribe surrendered unconditionally and were later expelled from Medina.<ref name="Ishaq2">Guillaume 363, Stillman 123</ref>

In 625 CE, the Banu Nadir tribe was evicted from [[Medina]] after they attempted to assassinate Muhammad.<ref name="Halabi">{{cite book|last=al-Halabi|first=Nur al-Din|title=Sirat-i-Halbiyyah |publisher=Idarah Qasmiyyah Deoband | volume = 2, part 10 |location= Uttar Pradesh |page= 34 }} Translated by Muhammad Aslam Qasmi.</ref><ref name="BanuNadir">{{cite encyclopedia |author=Vacca, V. |editor1=P.J. Bearman |editor2=Th. Bianquis |editor3=[[Clifford Edmund Bosworth|C.E. Bosworth]] |editor4=E. van Donzel |editor5=W.P. Heinrichs | encyclopedia =[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] Online|title=Nadir, Banu 'l|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |issn=1573-3912}}</ref> In 627 CE, when the [[Quraysh]] and their allies besieged the city in the [[Battle of the Trench]], the Qurayza initially tried to remain neutral but eventually entered into negotiations with the besieging army, violating [[Constitution of Medina|the pact they had agreed to years earlier]].<ref name="Destiny Disrupted">{{cite book|title=Destiny Disrupted: A History of the World Through Islamic Eyes|url=https://archive.org/details/destinydisrupted00ansa_0|url-access=registration|first=Tamim|last=Ansary|year=2009|publisher=PublicAffairs |isbn=9781586486068}}</ref> Subsequently, the tribe was charged with treason and besieged by the Muslims commanded by Muhammad.<ref name="Peterson">Peterson, ''Muhammad: the prophet of God'', p. 125-127.</ref><ref name="Ramadan140">Ramadan, ''In the Footsteps of the Prophet'', p. 140f.</ref> The Banu Qurayza eventually surrendered and their men were beheaded.<ref name="Peterson"/><ref name="Ramadan140"/><ref>Hodgson, ''The Venture of Islam'', vol. 1, p. 191.</ref><ref name="Brown, p. 81">Brown, ''A New Introduction to Islam'', p. 81.</ref><ref name="Lings229">Lings, ''Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources'', p. 229-233.</ref> The spoils of battle, including the enslaved women and children of the tribe, were divided up among the companions that had participated in the siege and among the [[Muhajirun|emigrees from Mecca]] who had hitherto depended on the help of the [[Ansar (Islam)|Muslims native to Medina]]. Although the Banu Qurayza never took up arms against Muhammad or the Muslims, they entered into negotiations with the invading army and violated the Constitution of Medina. However, Nuam ibn Masud was able to sow discord between the invading forces and Banu Qurayza, thus breaking down the negotiations.<ref name= "Stillman 13">See e.g. Stillman, p. 13.</ref><ref name= "Guillalume458">Guillaume, p. 458f.</ref><ref name= "Ramadan143">Ramadan, p. 143.</ref>

====Verses in the Quran====
As a result, the direction of Muslim prayer was shifted towards [[Mecca]] from [[Jerusalem]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Marshall G. S. Hodgson|title=The Venture of Islam: The classical age of Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fFyZu8s1E2UC&pg=PA177|access-date=1 June 2012|date=15 February 1977|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-34683-0|pages=170–190}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated4" /> According to Laqueur, conflicting statements about Jews in the Quran have affected Muslim attitudes towards Jews to this day, especially during periods of rising [[Islamic fundamentalism]].<ref>Laqueur, p. 191</ref>

===Judaism in Islamic theology===
According to [[Bernard Lewis]], there is nothing in [[Islamic theology]], with one single exception,{{which|date=October 2023}} that can be considered refutations of Judaism or ferocious anti-Jewish diatribes.<ref>Lewis (1999) p. 126</ref> Lewis and [[Jerome Chanes|Chanes]] suggest that, for a variety of reasons, Muslims were not antisemitic for the most part. The Quran, like Judaism, orders Muslims to profess strict monotheism. It also rejects the stories of [[Jewish deicide]] as a blasphemous absurdity, and other similar stories in the [[Gospels]] play no part in the Muslim educational system. The Quran does not present itself as a fulfillment of the [[Hebrew Bible]] but rather a restoration of its original message (see [[Tahrif]] for such claimed alterations and [[Tawrat]] for the Islamic understanding of the Torah as an [[Islamic holy book]]). In such a line of argument, no clash of interpretations between Judaism and Islam can arise.<ref>Lewis (1999), pp. 117–118</ref><ref name="Chanes">Chanes, Jerome A (2004). ''Antisemitism''. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. pp. 41–5.</ref>

In addition, Lewis argues that the Quran lacks popular Western traditions of 'guilt and betrayal'.<ref name="autogenerated4">Lewis (1999) p. 122</ref> Rosenblatt and Pinson suggest that the Quran teaches toleration of Judaism as a fellow monotheistic faith.<ref name="Rosenblatt">Pinson; Rosenblatt (1946) pp. 112–119</ref>

Lewis adds that negative attributes ascribed to subject religions (in this case Judaism and Christianity) are usually expressed in religious and social terms, but only very rarely in ethnic or racial terms. However, this does sometimes occur. The language of abuse is often quite strong. Lewis adduces that three Quranic verses ({{qref|2|65}}, {{qref|5|60}}, {{qref|7|166}}) ground conventional Muslim [[epithets]] for Jews (as [[apes]]) and Christians (as [[pigs]]).<ref>Lewis, ''The Jews and Islam'', pp. 33, 198</ref> The interpretation of these 'enigmatic'<ref>Firestone, p. 242 n.8</ref> passages in Islamic exegetics is highly complex, dealing as they do with infractions like breaking the Sabbath.<ref>On 2:62, the reference is to Jewish Sabbath breakers. See the synthesis of commentaries in Mahmoud Ayoub, ''The Qur'an and Its Interpreters'', SUNY Press, New York,1984, Vol. 1 pp. 108–116</ref> According to Goitein, the idea of Jewish Sabbath breakers turning into apes may reflect the influence of [[Yemen]]i [[midrash]]im.<ref>Gerald R. Hawting, ''The idea of idolatry and the emergence of Islam: from polemic to history'', Cambridge University Press, 1999 p. 105 n.45</ref> Firestone notes that the Qurayza tribe itself is described in Muslim sources as using the trope of being turned into apes if one breaks the Sabbath to justify not exploiting the Sabbath in order to attack Mohammad, when they were under siege.<ref>Firestone, p. 37</ref>

According to Stillman, the Quran praises [[Moses]], and depicts the Israelites as the recipients of divine favour.<ref name="Stillman2"/> The Quran dedicates many verses to the glorification of Hebrew prophets, says Leon Poliakov.<ref name="Poliakov74">Poliakov (1974) pp. 27, 41–3</ref> He quotes verse {{qref|6|85}} as an example,
<blockquote>And We blessed him with Isaac and Jacob. We guided them all as We previously guided Noah and those among his descendants: David, Solomon, Job, Joseph, Moses, and Aaron. This is how We reward the good-doers. Likewise, ˹We guided˺ Zachariah, John, Jesus, and Elias, who were all of the righteous. ˹We also guided˺ Ishmael, Elisha, Jonah, and Lot, favouring each over other people ˹of their time˺.</blockquote>

===Islamic remarks about Jews===
[[Leon Poliakov]],<ref name="EncJud">Poliakov</ref> [[Walter Laqueur]],<ref name="Laqueur192"/> and [[Jane Gerber]],<ref name="autogenerated1">Gerber, p. 78</ref> argue that passages in the Quran reproach Jews for their refusal to recognize [[Muhammad]] as a [[prophet]] of [[God]].<ref name="EncJud"/> "The Quran is engaged mainly in dealing with the sinners among the Jews and the attack on them is shaped according to models that one encounters in the New Testament."<ref name=autogenerated5>Uri Rubin, [[Encyclopedia of the Qur'an]], Jews and Judaism</ref> The Muslim holy text defined the [[Arab]] and Muslim attitude towards Jews to this day, especially in the periods when [[Islamic fundamentalism]] was on the rise.<ref name="Laqueur192"/>

Walter Laqueur states that the Quran and its interpreters have a great many conflicting things to say about the Jews. Jews are said to be treacherous and hypocritical and could never be friends with a Muslim.<ref name="Laqueur192"/>

Frederick M. Schweitzer and Marvin Perry state that references to Jews in the Quran are mostly negative. The Quran states that wretchedness and baseness were stamped upon the Jews, and they were visited with wrath from Allah, that was because they disbelieved in Allah's revelations and slew the prophets wrongfully. And for their taking [[usury]], which was [[Usury in Jewish Law|prohibited for them]], and because of their consuming people's wealth under false pretense, a painful punishment was prepared for them. The Quran requires their "abasement and poverty" in the form of the poll tax [[jizya]]. In his "wrath" God has "cursed" the Jews and will turn them into apes/monkeys and swine and idol worshipers because they are "infidels".<ref name=Schweitzer266 />

According to Martin Kramer, the Quran speaks of Jews in a negative way and reports instances of Jewish treachery against the [[Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]]. However, Islam did not hold up those Jews who practiced treachery against Muhammad as archetypes nor did it portray treachery as the embodiment of Jews in all times and places. The Quran also attests to Muhammad's amicable relations with Jews.<ref name=kramer/>

While traditional religious supremacism played a role in the Islamic view of Jews, the same attitude applied to Christians and other non-Muslims. Islamic tradition regards Jews as a legitimate community of [[monotheists|believers in God]] (called "[[people of the Book]]") [[Sharia|legally]] entitled to sufferance.<ref name=kramer/>

The standard Quranic reference to Jews is the verse {{qref|2|61–62}}.<ref>Lewis (1999) p. 128</ref> It says:

{{blockquote|And ˹remember˺ when you said, “O Moses! We cannot endure the same meal ˹every day˺. So ˹just˺ call upon your Lord on our behalf, He will bring forth for us some of what the earth produces of herbs, cucumbers, garlic, lentils, and onions.” Moses scolded ˹them˺, “Do you exchange what is better for what is worse? ˹You can˺ go down to any village and you will find what you have asked for.” They were stricken with disgrace and misery, and they invited the displeasure of Allah for rejecting Allah’s signs and unjustly killing the prophets. This is ˹a fair reward˺ for their disobedience and violations. Indeed, the believers, Jews, Christians, and Sabians—whoever ˹truly˺ believes in Allah and the Last Day and does good will have their reward with their Lord. And there will be no fear for them, nor will they grieve.|{{qref|2|61–62|c=y}} }}

However, due to the Quran's timely process of story-telling, some scholars argue that all references to Jews or other groups within the Quran refers to only certain populations at a certain point in history.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sanders |first1=Katie |title=Sean Hannity: The Koran says 'don't take Christians and Jews as your friends |url=https://www.politifact.com/punditfact/statements/2014/may/16/sean-hannity/sean-hannity-koran-says-dont-take-christians-and-j/ |website=[[Politifact]] |access-date=15 December 2019}}</ref> Also, the Quran praises some Jews in {{qref|5|69}}:
"Indeed, the believers, Jews, Sabians and Christians—whoever ˹truly˺ believes in Allah and the Last Day and does good, there will be no fear for them, nor will they grieve."

The Quran gives credence to the Christian claim of Jews scheming against Jesus, " ... but God also schemed, and God is the best of schemers." ({{qref|3|54|b=y}}) In the [[Islamic views on Jesus' death|mainstream Muslim view]], the [[crucifixion of Jesus]] was an illusion, and thus the Jewish plots against him ended in failure.<ref name="Lewis 1999, p. 120">Lewis (1999), p. 120</ref> According to Gerber, in numerous verses ({{qref|3|63|b=y}}; {{qref|3|71}}; {{qref|4|46}}; {{qref|4|160–161}}; {{qref|5|41–44}}, {{qref|5|63–64}}, {{qref|5|82}}; {{qref|6|92}})<ref name="Gerber">Gerber, p. 91</ref> the Quran accuses Jews of [[tahrif|altering the Scripture]].<ref name="autogenerated1" /> According to [[Gabriel Said Reynolds]], "the Qur’ān makes 'the killing of the prophets' one of the principal characteristics of the Jews";<ref name="Reynolds 2012">{{cite journal |author-last=Reynolds |author-first=Gabriel Said |title=On the Qur'ān and the Theme of Jews as "Killers of the Prophets" |author-link=Gabriel Said Reynolds |date=April 2012 |url=https://www3.nd.edu/~reynolds/index_files/jews%20as%20killers%20of%20the%20prophets%20final.pdf |journal=Al-Bayan: Journal of Qur'an and Hadith Studies |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=9–32 |doi=10.11136/jqh.1210.02.02 |issn=2232-1969 |s2cid=162290561 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216004900/https://www3.nd.edu/~reynolds/index_files/jews%20as%20killers%20of%20the%20prophets%20final.pdf |archive-date=16 February 2017 |url-status=live |access-date=13 February 2021}}</ref> although the Quran emphasizes the killing of the [[Prophets in Judaism|Jewish prophets]] by the Israelites,<ref name="Fastenbauer 2020">{{cite book |author-last=Fastenbauer |author-first=Raimund |year=2020 |editor1-last=Lange |editor1-first=Armin |editor2-last=Mayerhofer |editor2-first=Kerstin |editor3-last=Porat |editor3-first=Dina |editor4-last=Schiffman |editor4-first=Lawrence H. |title=An End to Antisemitism! – Volume 2: Confronting Antisemitism from the Perspectives of Christianity, Islam, and Judaism |chapter=Islamic Antisemitism: Jews in the Qur’an, Reflections of European Antisemitism, Political Anti-Zionism: Common Codes and Differences |location=[[Berlin]] and [[Boston]] |publisher=[[De Gruyter]] |pages=279–300 |doi=10.1515/9783110671773-018 |doi-access=free |isbn=9783110671773}}</ref> Reynolds remarks that none of them were killed by the Israelites according to the [[Hebrew Bible|Biblical account]].<ref name="Reynolds 2012"/>

{{Blockquote
|text=If we look to Islamic tradition for the answer to this question we might come to the conclusion that Muhammad's rivalry with the Jews of Medina led him to develop increasingly hostile anti-Jewish polemic. This is the sort of conclusion suggested by the ''[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]'' article on Jews by [[Norman Stillman]]. Speaking of the Medinan period of Muhammad's career, Stillman comments: "During this fateful time, fraught with tension after the Hidjra, when Muhammad encountered contradiction, ridicule and rejection from the Jewish scholars in Medina, he came to adopt a  radically more negative view of the people of the Book who had received earlier scriptures".<ref name="Reynolds 2012"/>
|author=[[Gabriel Said Reynolds]]
}}

But the Quran differentiates between "good and bad" Jews, adding to the idea that the Jewish people or their religion itself are not the target of the story-telling process.<ref name="Poliakov74" /> Rubin claims the criticisms deal mainly "with the sinners among the Jews and the attack on them is shaped according to models that one encounters in the New Testament."<ref name=autogenerated5 /> The Quran also speaks favorably of Jews. Though it also criticizes them for not being grateful for God's blessing on them, the harsh criticisms are only addressed towards a particular group of Jews, which is clear from the context of the Quranic verses, but translations usually confuse this by using the general term "Jews". To judge Jews based on the deeds of some of their ancestors is an anti-Quranic idea.<ref name="Tahir" />

[[Ali S. Asani]] suggests that the Quran endorses the establishment of religiously and culturally plural societies and this endorsement has affected the treatment of religious minorities in Muslim lands throughout history. He cites the endorsement of [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralism]] to explain why violent forms of antisemitism generated in medieval and modern Europe, culminating in the Holocaust, never occurred in regions under Muslim rule.<ref>[http://www.twf.org/Library/Pluralism.html On Pluralism, Intolerance, and the Quran]. Twf.org. Retrieved on 2012-06-01.</ref>

Some verses of the Quran, notably {{qref|2|256}}, preach tolerance towards members of the Jewish faith.<ref name="Laqueur192">Laqueur, pp. 191–192</ref> According to Kramer, Jews are regarded as members of a legitimate community of believers in God, "[[people of the Book]]", and therefore [[Sharia|legally]] entitled to sufferance.<ref name=kramer/>

As one of the [[Five Pillars of Islam|five pillars of Islam]] Muslims perform daily [[Salat]] prayers, which involves reciting the first chapter of the Qur'an, the [[Al-Fatiha]].<ref name="Quran 4 U">{{cite web|url=http://www.quran4u.com/Tafsir%20Ibn%20Kathir/001%20Fatihah.htm |title=Tafsir Ibn Kathir (English): Surah Al Fatihah |work=Quran 4 U|access-date=8 December 2019}}</ref>  Most commentators<ref>{{cite book|author= Ayoub, Mahmoud M.|title=The Qur'an and Its Interpreters: v.1: Vol 1|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0873957274|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sIXpFtvp2JYC&q=%22those+who+have+incurred+Your+wrath%22%29+refers+to+the+Jews.&pg=PA49|page=49|quote=Most commentators have included the Jews among those who have "incurred" divine wrath and the Christians among those who have "gone astray"|year=1984|author-link=Mahmoud M. Ayoub}}</ref> suggest that the description, "those who earn Thine anger" in {{qref|1|7|c=y}} refers to the Jews. Israel Shrenzel, former chief analyst in the Arabic section of the research division of the [[Shin Bet]] and a current teacher in [[Tel Aviv University]]’s department of Arabic and Islamic studies wrote, "Given that there is contradiction between the content and message of the two groups of verses – those hostile to Jews and those tolerant toward them – the question is which group is to be adopted nowadays by the Muslim scholars and masses. The more dominant view adheres to the first group".<ref>{{cite journal| journal = Jewish Political Studies Review | volume = 29 | issue = 3–4 | url=http://jcpa.org/article/verses-and-reality-what-the-koran-really-says-about-jews/ |title=Verses and Reality: What the Koran Really Says about Jews |author=Shrenzel, Israel|date=4 September 2018 |access-date=8 December 2019}}</ref>

In 567, [[Khaybar]] was invaded and vacated of its Jewish inhabitants by the [[Ghassanid]] Arab Christian king [[Al-Harith ibn Jabalah]]. He later freed to the captives upon his return to the [[Levant]]. A brief account of the campaign is given by [[Ibn Qutaybah]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.islamport.com/b/5/adab/%df%ca%c8%20%c7%e1%c3%cf%c8/%c7%e1%e3%da%c7%d1%dd/%c7%e1%e3%da%c7%d1%dd%20005.html|title=Ibn Qutaybah: al-Ma'arif|access-date=11 October 2015|archive-date=9 September 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120909212342/http://www.islamport.com/b/5/adab/%DF%CA%C8%20%C7%E1%C3%CF%C8/%C7%E1%E3%DA%C7%D1%DD/%C7%E1%E3%DA%C7%D1%DD%20005.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> and potentially also mentioned in the sixth-century [[Harran inscription]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.islamic-awareness.org/History/Islam/Inscriptions/harran.html|title=Harran Inscription: A Pre-Islamic Arabic Inscription From 568 CE|website=www.islamic-awareness.org}}</ref> See Irfan Shahid's ''Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century'' for full details.<ref>[[Irfan Shahid]]: ''Byzantium and the Arabs in the sixth century'', p. 322</ref>

{{Main|Jewish community of Khaybar}}

In the 7th century, Khaybar was inhabited by Jews, who pioneered the cultivation of the oasis<ref>Yāqut, ''Šihāb al-Dīn ibn ‘Abd Allah al-Ḥamawī al-Rūmī al-Baġdādī'' (ed. Ferdinand Wüstenfeld), Mu’jam al-Buldān, vol. IV, Leipzig 1866, p. 542 (reprint: Ṭaharān 1965, ''Maktabat al-Asadi''); Hayyim Zeev Hirschberg, ''Israel Ba-‘Arav'', Tel Aviv 1946, p. 343 (Hebrew).</ref> and made their living growing date palm trees, as well as through commerce and craftsmanship, accumulating considerable wealth. Some objects found by the Muslims when they entered Khaybar — a [[siege engine|siege-engine]], 20 [[:wikt:bale#Etymology 3|bale]]s of [[Yemen]]ite cloth, and 500 cloaks — point out to an intense trade carried out by the Jews.  In the past some scholars attempted to explain the siege-engine by suggesting that it was used for settling quarrels among the families of the community.  Today most academics believe it was stored in a depôt for future sale, in the same way that swords, lances, shields, and other weaponry had been sold by the Jews to Arabs. Equally, the cloth and the cloaks may have been intended for sale, as it was unlikely that such a quantity of luxury goods were kept for the exclusive use of the Jews.{{Citation needed|date=February 2008}}

The oasis was divided into three regions: al-Natat, al-Shikk, and al-Katiba, probably separated by natural divisions, such as the desert, [[lava]] drifts, and swamps. Each of these regions contained several fortresses or redoubts containing homes, storehouses and stables. Each fortress was occupied by a separate family and surrounded by cultivated fields and palm-groves. In order to improve their defensive capabilities, the settlers raised the fortresses up on hills or [[basalt]] rocks.

Jews continued to live in the oasis for several more years afterwards until they were finally expelled by caliph [[Umar]]. The imposition of tribute upon the conquered Jews of the Khaybar Fortress served as a precedent.  Islamic law came to require exaction of tribute known as ''[[jizya]]'' from ''[[dhimmi]]s'', i.e. non-Muslims under Muslim rule.

For many centuries, the [[oasis]] at Khaybar was an important [[Caravan (travellers)|caravan]] stopping place.  The center developed around a series of ancient dams built to hold run-off water from the rain. Around the water catchments, [[date palm]]s grew.  Khaybar became an important date-producing center.

The words "humility" and "humiliation" occur frequently in the Quran and later Muslim literature in relation to Jews. According to Lewis, "This, in Islamic view, is their just punishment for their past rebelliousness, and is manifested in their present impotence between the mighty powers of Christendom and Islam." The standard Quranic reference to Jews is verse {{qref|2|61}}: "And remember ye said: "O [[Moses]]! we cannot endure one kind of food (always); so beseech thy Lord for us to produce for us of what the earth groweth, -its pot-herbs, and cucumbers, [[garlic]], [[lentil]]s, and [[onion]]s." He said: "Will ye exchange the better for the worse? Go ye down to any town, and ye shall find what ye want!" They were covered with humiliation and misery; they drew on themselves the wrath of Allah. This because they went on rejecting the Signs of Allah and slaying His Messengers without just cause. This because they rebelled and went on transgressing."<ref name="Lewis p128">Lewis (1999), p. 128</ref>

Two verses later we read: "And ˹remember˺ when We took a covenant from you and raised the [[Mount Sinai|mountain]] above you ˹saying˺, “Hold firmly to that ˹Scripture˺ which We have given you and observe its teachings so perhaps you will become mindful ˹of Allah˺.” Yet you turned away afterwards. Had it not been for Allah's grace and mercy upon you, you would have certainly been of the losers. You are already aware of those of you who broke the [[Shabbat|Sabbath]]. We said to them, “Be disgraced apes!” So We made their fate an example to present and future generations, and a lesson to the God-fearing."{{qref|2|63|b=y|s=y}}

The Quran associates Jews with rejection of God's prophets including Jesus and Muhammad, thus explaining their resistance to him personally. (Cf. Surah {{qref|2|87–91}}; {{qref|5|59}}, 61, 70, and 82.) It also asserts that Jews and Christians claim to be children of God (Surah {{qref|5|18}}), and that only they will achieve salvation (Surah {{qref|2|111}}). According to the Quran, Jews blasphemously claim that [[Ezra]] is the son of God, as [[Christians]] claim Jesus is, (Surah {{qref|9|30}}) and that God's hand is fettered (Surah {{qref|5|64}} – i.e., that they can freely defy God). Some of those who are Jews,<ref name="Yahud">Here the Quran uses an Arabic expression ''alladhina hadu'' ("those who are Jewish"), which appears in the Quran ten times. Stillman (2006)</ref> "pervert words from their meanings", (Surah {{qref|4|44}}), and because they have committed wrongdoing, God has "forbidden some good things that were previously permitted them", thus explaining Jewish commandments regarding food, Sabbath restrictions on work, and other rulings as a punishment from God (Surah {{qref|4|160}}). They listen for the sake of mendacity (Surah {{qref|5|41}}), twisting the truth, and practice forbidden usury, and therefore they will receive "a painful doom" (Surah {{qref|4|161}}).<ref name="Yahud"/> The Quran gives credence to the Christian claim of Jews scheming against Jesus, "... but God also schemed, and God is the best of schemers"(Surah {{qref|3|54}}). In the Muslim view, the [[crucifixion of Jesus]] was an illusion, and thus the supposed Jewish plots against him ended in complete failure.<ref name="Lewis 1999, p. 120"/> In numerous verses (Surah {{qref|3|63}}, {{qref|3|71}}; {{qref|4|46}}, {{qref|4|160–161}}; {{qref|5|41–44}}, {{qref|5|63–64}}, {{qref|5|82}}; {{qref|6|92}})<ref name="Gerber" /> the Quran accuses Jews of deliberately [[tahrif|obscuring and perverting scripture]].<ref name="autogenerated1" />

===Influence of Western antisemitism===
[[Martin Kramer]] argues that "Islamic tradition did not hold up those Jews who practiced treachery against Muhammad as archetypes—as the embodiment of Jews in all times and places."<ref name=kramer/> Thus for Muslims to embrace the belief that the Jews are the eternal "enemies of God", there must be more at work than the [[Hadith|Islamic tradition]].<ref name=kramer/> Islamic tradition does, however, provide the sources for Islamic antisemitism and "there is no doubt whatsoever that the Islamic tradition provides sources on which Islamic antisemitism now feeds."<ref name=kramer/> The modern use of the Quran to support antisemitism is, however, selective and distorting.<ref name="kramer"/> The fact that many Islamic thinkers have spent time in the [[Western world|West]] has resulted in the absorption of antisemitism, he says. Specifically, Kramer believes that the twin concepts of the "eternal Jew" as the enemy of God and the "arch conspirator" are themes that are borrowed "from the canon of Western religious and racial antisemitism."<ref name=kramer/> In his view, Islamic antisemitism is "[l]Like other antisemitism" in that "it has its origins in the anti-rational ideologies of modern Europe, which have now infected the Islamic world."<ref name=kramer/>