Editing Albertus Magnus (section)

==Writings==
[[File:Albertus Magnus-Denkmal.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Albertus Magnus monument at the [[University of Cologne]]]]
[[File:AlbertusMagnus.jpg|''Saint Albertus Magnus'', a fresco by [[Tommaso da Modena]] (1352), Chapter hall of convent of St. Nicholas, [[Treviso]], Italy|thumb|right]]

Albert's writings collected in 1899 went to thirty-eight volumes. These displayed his prolific habits and encyclopedic knowledge of topics such as [[logic]], [[Christian theology|theology]], [[botany]], [[geography]], [[astronomy]], [[astrology]], [[mineralogy]], [[alchemy]], [[zoology]], [[physiology]], [[phrenology]], [[justice]], [[law]], [[friendship]], and [[love]]. He digested, interpreted, and systematized the whole of Aristotle's works, gleaned from the Latin translations and notes of the Arabian commentators, in accordance with Church doctrine. Most modern knowledge of Aristotle was preserved and presented by Albert.<ref name=Kennedy />

His principal theological works are a commentary in three volumes on the Books of the Sentences of [[Peter Lombard]] (''Magister Sententiarum''), and the ''[[Summa Theologiae]]'' in two volumes. The latter is in substance a more didactic repetition of the former.

Albert's activity, however, was more philosophical than theological (see [[Scholasticism]]). The philosophical works, occupying the first six and the last of the 21 volumes, are generally divided according to the [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] scheme of the sciences, and consist of interpretations and condensations of Aristotle's relative works, with supplementary discussions upon contemporary topics, and occasional divergences from the opinions of the master. Albert believed that Aristotle's approach to natural philosophy did not pose any obstacle to the development of a Christian philosophical view of the natural order.<ref name=Markus />

[[File:Firenze, alberto magno, de animalibus, 1450-1500 ca. cod fiesolano 67, 01.JPG|thumb|upright|''De animalibus'' (c. 1450–1500, cod. fiesolano 67, [[Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana]])]]

Albert's knowledge of natural science was considerable and for the age remarkably accurate. His industry in every department was great: not only did he produce commentaries and paraphrases of the entire Aristotelian corpus, including his scientific works, but Albert also added to and improved upon them. His books on topics like botany, zoology, and minerals included information from ancient sources, but also results of his own empirical investigations. These investigations pushed several of the special sciences forward, beyond the reliance on classical texts. In the case of embryology, for example, it has been claimed that little of value was written between Aristotle and Albert, who managed to identify organs within eggs.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2004-09-01|title=Much more from the chicken's egg than breakfast – a wonderful model system|journal=Mechanisms of Development|language=en|volume=121|issue=9|pages=1015–1017|doi=10.1016/j.mod.2004.04.021|pmid=15296967|issn=0925-4773|last1=Wolpert|first1=Lewis|s2cid=7065525|doi-access=free}}</ref> Furthermore, Albert also effectively invented entire special sciences, where Aristotle has not covered a topic. For example, prior to Albert, there was no systematic study of minerals.<ref name=":2" /> For the breadth of these achievements, he was bestowed the name ''Doctor Universalis.''

Much of Albert's empirical contributions to the natural sciences have been superseded, but his general approach to science may be surprisingly modern. For example, in ''De Mineralibus'' (Book II, Tractate ii, Ch. 1) Albert claims, "For it is [the task] of natural science not simply to accept what we are told but to inquire into the causes of natural things."<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/308059821ALBERTUSMAGNUSTheBookOfMinerals|title=Book of Minerals|last=Wyckoff|first=Dorothy|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1967|location=Oxford|pages=Preface}}</ref>

===Alchemy===
[[File:Liebig Company Trading Card Ad 01.12.003 front.tif|thumb|left|upright| Albertus Magnus, Chimistes Celebres, [[Liebig's Extract of Meat Company]] Trading Card, 1929]]

In the centuries since his death, many stories arose about Albert as an [[Alchemy|alchemist]] and magician. "Much of the modern confusion results from the fact that later works, particularly the alchemical work known as the ''Secreta Alberti'' or the ''Experimenta Alberti'', were falsely attributed to Albertus by their authors to increase the prestige of the text through association."<ref>Katz, David A., "An Illustrated History of Alchemy and Early Chemistry", 1978</ref> On the subject of alchemy and chemistry, many treatises relating to alchemy have been attributed to him, though in his authentic writings he had little to say on the subject, and then mostly through commentary on Aristotle. For example, in his commentary, ''De mineralibus'', he refers to the power of stones, but does not elaborate on what these powers might be.<ref>Georg Wieland, "Albert der Grosse.  Der Entwurf einer eigenständigen Philosophie," Philosophen des Mittelalters (Darmstadt: Primus, 2000) 124-39.</ref> A wide range of Pseudo-Albertine works dealing with alchemy exist, though, showing the belief developed in the generations following Albert's death that he had mastered alchemy, one of the fundamental sciences of the Middle Ages. These include ''Metals and Materials''; the ''Secrets of Chemistry''; the ''Origin of Metals''; the ''Origins of Compounds'', and a ''Concordance ''which is a collection of ''Observations on the [[philosopher's stone]]''; and other alchemy-chemistry topics, collected under the name of ''Theatrum Chemicum''.<ref>Walsh, John, ''The Thirteenth, Greatest of Centuries.'' 1907:46 ([https://books.google.com/books?id=_rofAAAAIAAJ&dq=albertus+magnus+gold+minerals&pg=RA2-PA46 available online]).</ref> He is credited with the discovery of the element [[arsenic]]<ref name="BuildingBlocks451-3">{{cite book |last=Emsley |first=John |title=Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-850341-5 |pages=43,513,529 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford}}</ref> and experimented with photosensitive chemicals, including [[silver nitrate]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Davidson |first=Michael W. |author2=National High Magnetic Field Laboratory at The Florida State University |title=Molecular Expressions: Science, Optics and You&nbsp;— Timeline&nbsp;— Albertus Magnus |publisher=The Florida State University |date=2003-08-01 |url=http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/magnus.html |access-date=2009-11-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330045629/http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/magnus.html |archive-date=2010-03-30 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Szabadváry |first=Ferenc |title=History of analytical chemistry |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=1992 |page=17 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=53APqy0KDaQC |isbn=978-2-88124-569-5}}</ref> He did believe that stones had occult properties, as he related in his work ''De mineralibus''. However, there is scant evidence that he personally performed alchemical experiments.

According to legend, Albert is said to have discovered the philosopher's stone and passed it on to his pupil Thomas Aquinas, shortly before his death. Albert does not confirm he discovered the stone in his writings, but he did record that he witnessed the creation of gold by "transmutation."<ref>Julian Franklyn and Frederick E. Budd. ''A Survey of the Occult.'' Electric Book Company. 2001. p. 28-30. {{ISBN|1-84327-087-0}}.</ref> Given that Thomas Aquinas died six years before Albert's death, this legend as stated is unlikely.

===Astrology===
Albert was deeply interested in [[astrology]], as has been articulated by scholars such as Paola Zambelli<ref>Paola Zambelli, "The Speculum Astronomiae and its Enigma" Dordrecht.</ref> and Scott Hendrix.<ref name=":1" /> Throughout the Middle Ages&nbsp;–and well into the early modern period– astrology was widely accepted by scientists and intellectuals who held the view that life on earth is effectively a microcosm within the macrocosm (the latter being the cosmos itself). It was believed that correspondence therefore exists between the two and thus the celestial bodies follow patterns and cycles analogous to those on earth. With this worldview, it seemed reasonable to assert that astrology could be used to predict the probable future of a human being. Albert argued that an understanding of the celestial influences affecting us could help us to live our lives more in accord with Christian precepts.<ref name=":1">Scott E. Hendrix, How Albert the Great's Speculum Astronomiae Was Interpreted and Used by Four Centuries of Readers (Lewiston: 2010), 44-46.</ref> The most comprehensive statement of his astrological beliefs is to be found in two separate works that he authored around 1260, known as the ''[[Speculum astronomiae]]'' and ''De Fato''.<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6pKpEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22on+fate%22+%22albertus+magnus%22&pg=PA10 |title = On Fate (De Fato)|isbn = 9781960069030|last1 = Curtin|first1 = D. P.|date = 1 February 2023| publisher=Dalcassian Publishing Company }}</ref> However, details of these beliefs can be found in almost everything he wrote, from his early ''De natura boni'' to his last work, the ''Summa theologiae''.<ref>Hendrix, 195.</ref> His ''speculum'' was critiqued by [[Gerard of Silteo]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Zambelli, Paola |title=The Speculum Astronomiae and its enigma. Astrology, Theology and Science in Albertus Magnus and his Contemporaries |publisher=Springer |year=1992 |isbn=9789048140985 |pages=51–59}}</ref>

<gallery>
File:Albertus Magnus – De meteoris, 1488 – BEIC 13302626.jpg|''De meteoris'', 1488
</gallery>

=== Tides and the Moon ===
Albert considered the tides to be influenced by the moon. Based on ancient Greek theories of light and [[Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi]]’s astrological explanations, he proposed a mixed theory where the Moon doubly attracts the water by its intrinsic astrological humid nature and by the heat that the moonlight produces.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Deparis |first1=Vincent |title=Investigations of Tides from the Antiquity to Laplace |date=2013 |work=Tides in Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume=861 |pages=31–82 |editor-last=Souchay |editor-first=Jean |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-642-32961-6_2 |access-date=2024-10-03 |place=Berlin, Heidelberg |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-32961-6_2 |isbn=978-3-642-32960-9 |last2=Legros |first2=Hilaire |last3=Souchay |first3=Jean |bibcode=2013LNP...861...31D |editor2-last=Mathis |editor2-first=Stéphane |editor3-last=Tokieda |editor3-first=Tadashi}}</ref>

===Matter and form===
Albert believed that all natural things were compositions of matter and form, to which he referred as ''quod est'' and ''quo est''. Albert also believed that God alone is the absolute ruling entity. Albert's version of [[hylomorphism]] is very similar to the [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] doctrine.

===Music===
Albert is known for his commentary on the musical practice of his times. Most of his written musical observations are found in his commentary on Aristotle's ''Poetics''. He rejected the idea of "[[Musica universalis|music of the spheres]]" as ridiculous: movement of astronomical bodies, he supposed, is incapable of generating sound. He wrote extensively on proportions in music, and on the three different subjective levels on which [[plainchant]] could work on the human soul: purging of the impure; illumination leading to contemplation; and nourishing perfection through contemplation. Of particular interest to 20th-century music theorists is the attention he paid to silence as an integral part of music.

===Metaphysics of morals===
Both of his early treatises, ''De natura boni'' and ''De bono'', start with a metaphysical investigation into the concepts of the good in general and the physical good. Albert refers to the physical good as ''bonum naturae''. Albert does this before directly dealing with the moral concepts of metaphysics. In Albert's later works, he says in order to understand human or moral goodness, the individual must first recognize what it means to be good and do good deeds. This procedure reflects Albert's preoccupations with neo-Platonic theories of good as well as the doctrines of [[Pseudo-Dionysius]].<ref>Cunningham, Stanley. Reclaiming Moral Agency: The Moral Philosophy of Albert the Great. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University Of America Press, 2008 p. 93</ref> Albert's view was highly valued by the Catholic Church and his peers.

===Natural law===
Albert devoted the last tractatus of ''De Bono'' to a theory of justice and [[natural law]]. Albert places God as the pinnacle of justice and natural law. God legislates and divine authority is supreme. Up until his time, it was the only work specifically devoted to natural law written by a theologian or philosopher.<ref>Cunningham, Stanley. Reclaiming Moral Agency: The Moral Philosophy of Albert the Great. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University Of America Press, 2008 p.207</ref>

===Friendship===
Albert mentions friendship in his work, ''De bono'', as well as presenting his ideals and morals of friendship in the very beginning of ''Tractatus II''. Later in his life he published ''Super Ethica''.<ref>Cunningham, Stanley. Reclaiming Moral Agency: The Moral Philosophy of Albert the Great. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University Of America Press, 2008 p.242</ref> With his development of friendship throughout his work it is evident that friendship ideals and morals took relevance as his life went on. Albert comments on Aristotle's view of friendship with a quote from [[Cicero]], who writes, "friendship is nothing other than the harmony between things divine and human, with goodwill and love". Albert agrees with this commentary but he also adds in harmony or agreement.<ref>Cunningham, Stanley. Reclaiming Moral Agency: The Moral Philosophy of Albert the Great. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University Of America Press, 2008 p.243</ref> Albert calls this harmony, ''consensio'', itself a certain kind of movement within the human spirit. Albert fully agrees with Aristotle in the sense that friendship is a virtue. Albert relates the inherent metaphysical contentedness between friendship and moral goodness. Albert describes several levels of goodness; the useful (''utile''), the pleasurable (''delectabile'') and the authentic or unqualified good (''honestum''). Then in turn there are three levels of friendship based on each of those levels, namely friendship based on usefulness (''amicitia utilis''), friendship based on pleasure (''amicitia delectabilis''), and friendship rooted in unqualified goodness (''amicitia honesti''; ''amicitia quae fundatur super honestum'').<ref>Cunningham, Stanley. Reclaiming Moral Agency: The Moral Philosophy of Albert the Great. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University Of America Press, 2008 p.244</ref>