Editing Aceh (section)

== History ==
=== Prehistory ===
[[File:Bukit Kerang in Aceh Tamiang, Aceh.jpg|thumb|left|Mollusca piles in [[Aceh Tamiang Regency]]]]

According to several archaeological findings, the first evidence of human habitation in Aceh is from a site near the [[Tamiang River]] where [[Midden|shell middens]] are present. [[Stone tool]]s and [[Faunal assemblage|faunal remains]] were also found on the site. Archeologists believe the site was first occupied around 10,000 BCE.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ari.nus.edu.sg/docs%5CAceh-project%5Cfull-papers%5Caceh_fp_danielperret.pdf |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20080119135034/http://www.ari.nus.edu.sg/docs/Aceh-project/full-papers/aceh_fp_danielperret.pdf |archive-date=19 January 2008 |title=Aceh as a Field for Ancient History Studies |author=Daniel Perret |date=24 February 2007 |publisher=Asia Research Institute-[[National University of Singapore]] |access-date=29 January 2010}}</ref>

=== Pre-Islamic Aceh ===
[[File:Avalokiteshvara head Aceh Srivijaya 1.JPG|thumb|upright|right|Head of [[Avalokiteshvara]] from Aceh.]]
[[File:Neusu Inscription.jpg|thumb |[[Neusu]] inscription stored in the Aceh Museum]]

The history of Aceh stretches back to the [[Lambri]] Kingdom. Several documented references indicate that Hindu-Buddhist culture existed in the area before its [[Islamization]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Lamuri, Kerajaan Pertama di Aceh yang Beragama Hindu
|url=https://news.detik.com/berita/d-3926025/lamuri-kerajaan-pertama-di-aceh-yang-beragama-hindu|website=detik news|access-date=2023-10-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mc.Kinnons|first1=E.Edwards|title=Beyond Serandib: A Note on Lambri at the Northern Tip of Aceh|journal=Indonesia |date=10 November 1988 |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/3351047|volume=1|issue=46 |pages=102–121|doi=10.2307/3351047 |jstor=3351047 |hdl=1813/53892 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>

The people of [[Lambri]] were described by [[Marco Polo]] as "idolaters", who had a [[Maharaja]] as their ruler, a king in the Hindu political structure, likely meaning they were [[Hindus]], [[Buddhism|Buddhists]], or a combination thereof.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TexF3FC87YC&pg=PA299 |title=The Travels of Marco Polo: The Complete Yule-Cordier Edition |author=Marco Polo |translator=Henry Yule |editor=Henri Cordier |date=1993 |page=299 |publisher=Dover Publications |isbn=978-0486275871}}</ref>

The inscription at [[Tamil inscriptions in the Malay world|Tanjore]] of [[Rajendra I]] documents the conquest of a land called "llämuridesam", located at the northern tip of Sumatra. The Nagarakritagama documents the possessions of the Imperial [[Majapahit]], and states that they control Barat, identified as the western coast of Aceh. [[Chinese language|Chinese]] records indicate that Aceh was under the control of the [[Sriwijaya]].<ref>{{cite book|last= Coedès|first= George|author-link= George Coedès|editor= Walter F. Vella|others= trans.Susan Brown Cowing|title= The Indianized States of Southeast Asia|year= 1968|publisher= University of Hawaii Press|isbn= 978-0-8248-0368-1}}</ref>

Though many temples were left abandoned or converted into mosques, such as the [[Indrapuri Old Mosque]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.witpress.com/Secure/elibrary/papers/IHA16/IHA16008FU1.pdf |title=Changing a Hindu temple into the Indrapuri Mosque in Aceh: the beginning of Islamisation in Indonesia – a vernacular architectural context |quote=Kompas argues that Indrapuri Mosque in Aceh was built in the 10th century AD by the Lamuri kingdom. At the time, it functioned as the Temple of Hinduism [4]. In addition, Zein says that the function of the temple was changed into a Mosque when the King and the people of Lamuri Hindu kingdom converted to Islam in 1205 AD}}</ref> some evidence remains, such as the head of a stone sculpture of [[Avalokiteshvara]] [[Boddhisattva]] was discovered in Aceh. Images of [[Amitabha]] Buddhas adorn his crown in front and on each side. [[Srivijaya]]n art estimated 9th-century CE collection of [[National Museum of Indonesia]], Jakarta. One of the few structural remains is the Indra Patra fort, which has several Hindu shrines.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indonesia-tourism.com/aceh/indra_patra.html|title=Indra Patra Fortress|publisher=Indonesia Tourism}}</ref> Historic names such as Indrapurba, Indrapurwa, Indrapatra, and Indrapuri, which refer to the God [[Indra]], also indicate that Hinduism had a lasting and significant presence in this land.

=== Beginnings of Islam in Southeast Asia ===
{{See also|Spread of Islam in Indonesia}}
[[File:Pasai.jpg|thumb|Map of [[Pasai]], the first Islamic kingdom in [[Southeast Asia]]|left]]

Evidence concerning the initial coming and subsequent establishment of Islam in [[Southeast Asia]] is thin and inconclusive. The historian [[Anthony Reid (academic)|Anthony Reid]] has argued that the region of the [[Chams|Cham people]] on the south-central coast of Vietnam was one of the earliest Islamic centers in Southeast Asia. Furthermore, as the Cham people fled the Vietnamese, one of the earliest locations that they established a relationship was with Aceh.<ref>Reid (1988 and 1993)</ref> Furthermore, it is thought that one of the earliest centers of [[Islam]] was in the Aceh region. When [[Venice|Venetian]] traveller [[Marco Polo]] passed by Sumatra on his way home from China in 1292 he found that [[Perlak, Aceh|Peureulak]] was a Muslim town while nearby 'Basma(n)' and 'Samara' were not. 'Basma(n)' and 'Samara' are often said to be [[Pasai]] and Samudra but evidence is inconclusive. The gravestone of Sultan Malik as-Salih, the first Muslim ruler of Samudra, has been found and is dated [[Hijri year|AH]] 696 (AD 1297). This is the earliest clear evidence of a Muslim dynasty in the Indonesia-Malay area and more gravestones from the 13th century show that this region continued under Muslim rule. [[Ibn Batutah]], a [[Morocco|Moroccan]] traveller, passing through on his way to China in 1345 and 1346, found that the ruler of Samudra was a follower of the [[Shafi'i]] school of Islam.<ref>Ricklefs (1991), page 4</ref>

After the initial appearance of Islam in Aceh, it further spread into the coastal regions by the 15th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Abuza |first=Zachary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rwp5DQAAQBAJ |title=Forging Peace in Southeast Asia: Insurgencies, Peace Processes, and Reconciliation |date=2016 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4422-5757-3 |pages=23}}</ref> Aceh soon became a cultural and scholastic Islamic center throughout Southeast Asia. It also became wealthy because it was a center of extensive trade.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities |publisher=Routledge |year=2005 |isbn=1-57958-468-3 |editor-last=Skutsch |editor-first=Carl |volume=1 |location=New York |pages=5}}</ref>

The Portuguese apothecary [[Tome Pires]] reported in his early 16th-century book ''Suma Oriental'' that most of the kings of Sumatra from Aceh through [[Palembang]] were Muslim. At Pasai, in what is now the [[North Aceh Regency]], there was a thriving international port. Pires attributed the establishment of Islam in Pasai to the 'cunning' of the Muslim merchants. The ruler of Pasai, however, had not been able to convert the people of the interior.<ref>Ricklefs (1991),
 page 7</ref>

=== Sultanate of Aceh ===
{{Main|Aceh Sultanate}}The Sultanate of Aceh was established by Sultan [[Ali Mughayat Syah]] in 1511.

In 1584–88 the Bishop of [[Portuguese Malacca|Malacca]], D. João Ribeiro Gaio, based on information provided by a former captive called Diogo Gil, wrote the "Roteiro das Cousas do Achem" (Lisboa 1997) – a description of the sultanate.

Later, during its [[golden era]], in the 17th century, its [[wikt:Special:Search/territory|territory]] and political influence expanded as far as [[Satun]] in southern [[Thailand]], [[Johor]] in [[Malay Peninsula]], and Siak in what is today the province of [[Riau]]. As was the case with most non-Javan pre-colonial states, [[Acehnese people|Acehnese]] power expanded outward by sea rather than inland. As it expanded down the Sumatran coast, its main competitors were [[Johor Sultanate|Johor]] and [[Portuguese Malacca]] on the other side of the [[Straits of Malacca]]. It was this seaborne trade focus that saw Aceh rely on rice imports from north [[Java]] rather than develop [[self sufficiency]] in rice production.<ref>Ricklefs (1991), page 17</ref>
[[File:Sultanate of Aceh.png|thumb|Map of Aceh Sultanate and its vassals at its greatest extent during the reign of Sultan Iskandar Muda]]
After the Portuguese occupation of [[Malacca]] in 1511, many Islamic traders passing the [[Malacca Straits]] shifted their trade to [[Banda Aceh]] and increased the [[Acehnese people|Acehnese]] rulers' wealth. During the reign of [[Sultan Iskandar Muda]] in the 17th century, Aceh's influence extended to most of [[Sumatra]] and the [[Malay Peninsula]]. Aceh allied itself with the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the [[Dutch East India Company]] in their struggle against the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] and the [[Johor Sultanate]]. Acehnese military power waned gradually thereafter, and Aceh ceded its territory of [[Pariaman]] in [[Sumatra]] to the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] in the 18th century.<ref>*D. G. E. Hall, ''A History of South-east Asia''. London: Macmillan, 1955.</ref>[[File:Aceh Sultanate en.svg|thumb|Map of Iskandar Muda's expeditions|left]]

By the early 19th century, however, Aceh had become an increasingly influential power due to its strategic location for controlling regional trade. In the 1820s it was the producer of over half the world's supply of [[black pepper]]. The pepper trade produced new wealth for the sultanate and for the rulers of many smaller nearby ports that had been under Aceh's control, but were now able to assert more independence. These changes initially threatened Aceh's integrity, but a new Sultan [[Alauddin Ibrahim Mansur Syah|Tuanku Ibrahim]], who controlled the kingdom from 1838 to 1870, reasserted power over nearby ports.<ref name="ricklefs2001p185">Ricklefs, M.C. (2001) ''A History of Modern Indonesia Since c. 1200''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p&nbsp;185–188.</ref>

Under the [[Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824]] the [[United Kingdom|British]] ceded their colonial possessions on Sumatra to the Dutch. In the treaty, the British described Aceh as one of their possessions, although they had no actual control over the sultanate. Initially, under the agreement the Dutch agreed to respect Aceh's independence. In 1871, however, the British dropped previous opposition to a Dutch invasion of Aceh, possibly to prevent [[France]] or the United States from gaining a foothold in the region. Although neither the Dutch nor the British knew the specifics, there had been rumors since the 1850s that Aceh had been in communication with the rulers of France and of the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="ricklefs2001p185" />

=== Aceh War ===
{{Main|Aceh War}}

[[File:Generaal Kohler sneuvelt in de Mesigit.jpg|thumb|[[Johan Köhler|General Köhler]], commandant of Dutch troops, died from a shot by an Acehnese sniper during the first attack on Aceh.]]
Pirates operating from Aceh threatened commerce in the [[Strait of Malacca]]; the sultan was unable to control them. Britain was a protector of Aceh and gave the Netherlands permission to eradicate the pirates. The campaign quickly drove out the sultan but the local leaders mobilized and fought the Dutch in four decades of guerrilla war, with high levels of atrocities.<ref>{{cite book |editor=Nicholas Tarling |editor-link=Nicholas Tarling |title=The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia: Volume 2, the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pBfsaw64rjMC&pg=PA104 |year=1992 |publisher=Cambridge U.P. |page=104 |isbn=978-0-521-35506-3 |access-date=15 December 2015}}</ref> The Dutch colonial government declared war on Aceh on 26 March 1873. Aceh sought American help but Washington rejected the request.<ref name="ricklefs2001p185" />

The Dutch tried one strategy after another over the course of four decades. An expedition under Major General [[Johan Harmen Rudolf Köhler]] in 1873 occupied most of the coastal areas. Köhler's strategy was to attack and take the sultan's palace. It failed. The Dutch then tried a naval blockade, reconciliation, concentration within a line of forts, and lastly passive containment. They had scant success. Reaching 15 to 20 million guilders a year, the heavy spending for failed strategies nearly bankrupted the colonial government.<ref>E.H. Kossmann, ''The Low Countries 1780–1940'' (1978) pp&nbsp;400–401</ref> During the course of the war, the Dutch set up the [[Gouvernment of Atjeh and Dependencies]] under a governor, although it did not establish wider control of its territory until after 1908.

The Aceh army was rapidly modernized, and Aceh soldiers killed Köhler. Köhler made some grave tactical errors and the reputation of the Dutch was severely harmed. In recent years, in line with expanding international attention to human rights issues and atrocities in war zones, there has been increasing discussion about some of the recorded acts of cruelty and slaughter committed by Dutch troops during the period of warfare in Aceh.<ref>Linawati Sidarto, "Images of a grisly past", ''[[The Jakarta Post]]: Weekender'', July 2011 {{cite web |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/06/23/grisly-images.html |title=Grisly Images &#124; the Jakarta Post |access-date=26 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110627150918/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/06/23/grisly-images.html |archive-date=27 June 2011}}</ref>

Hasan Mustafa (1852–1930) was a chief ''penghulu'', or judge, for the colonial government and was stationed in Aceh. He had to balance traditional Muslim justice with Dutch law. To stop the Aceh rebellion, Hasan Mustafa issued a fatwa, telling the Muslim population there in 1894, "It is Incumbent upon the Indonesian Muslim to be loyal to the Dutch East Indies Government".<ref>Mufti Ali, "A Study of Hasan Mustafa's 'Fatwa: 'It Is Incumbent upon the Indonesian Muslims to be Loyal to the Dutch East Indies Government,'" ''Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society,'' April 2004, Vol. 52 Issue 2, pp 91–122</ref>

=== Japanese occupation ===
During World War II, Japanese troops occupied Aceh. The Acehnese ''[[ulama]]'' (Islamic clerics) fought against both the Dutch and the Japanese, revolting against the Dutch in February 1942 and against Japan in November 1942. The revolt was led by the All-Aceh Religious Scholars' Association (PUSA). The Japanese suffered 18 dead in the uprising while they slaughtered up to 100 or over 120 Acehnese.<ref>{{cite book |author=John Martinkus |title=Indonesia's Secret War in Aceh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RcdwAAAAMAAJ |year=2004 |publisher=Random House Australia |isbn=978-1-74051-209-1 |page=47 |access-date=15 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Merle Calvin Ricklefs |title=A History of Modern Indonesia Since C. 1200 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0GrWCmZoEBMC&pg=PA252 |year=2001 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-4480-5 |page=252 |access-date=15 December 2015}}</ref> The revolt happened in Bayu and was centered around Tjot Plieng village's religious school.<ref>{{cite book |title=Tempo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3NETAQAAMAAJ |series=43–52 |volume=3 |year=2003 |publisher=Arsa Raya Perdana |page=27 |access-date=15 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.atjehcyber.net/2011/08/sejarah-jejak-perlawanan-aceh.html |title=Sejarah Jejak Perlawanan Aceh |author=atjehcyberID |work=Atjeh Cyber Warrior |access-date=17 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160427002230/http://www.atjehcyber.net/2011/08/sejarah-jejak-perlawanan-aceh.html |archive-date=27 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://issuu.com/waspada/docs/waspada__sabtu_17_maret_2012/3 |title=Waspada, Sabtu 17 Maret 2012 |work=Issuu |date=16 March 2012 |access-date=17 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314210034/https://issuu.com/waspada/docs/waspada__sabtu_17_maret_2012/3 |archive-date=14 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://issuu.com/waspada/docs/waspada__sabtu_17_maret_2012 |title=Waspada, Sabtu 17 Maret 2012 |work=Issuu |date=16 March 2012 |access-date=17 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315025913/https://issuu.com/waspada/docs/waspada__sabtu_17_maret_2012 |archive-date=15 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> During the revolt, the Japanese troops armed with mortars and machine guns were charged by sword wielding Acehnese under Teungku Abduldjalil (Tengku Abdul Djalil) in Buloh Gampong Teungah and Tjot Plieng on 10 and 13 November.<ref>{{cite book |title=Berita Kadjian Sumatera: Sumatra Research Bulletin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BiTjAAAAMAAJ |volume=1–4 |year=1971 |publisher=Dewan Penjelidikan Sumatera |page=35 |access-date=15 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Abdul Haris Nasution |title=Tentara Nasional Indonesia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v3kDBvr5UeYC |year=1963 |publisher=Ganaco |page=89 |access-date=15 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Sedjarah Iahirnja Tentara Nasional Indonesia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cKbQAAAAMAAJ |year=1970 |publisher=Sedjarah Militer Dam II/BB |page=12 |access-date=15 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Indonesia. Panitia Penjusun Naskah Buku "20 Tahun Indonesia Merdeka." |author2=Indonesia |title=20 &#91;i. e Dua puluh&#93; tahun Indonesia merdeka |year=1966 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9AE5AQAAIAAJ |volume=7 |publisher=Departement Penerangan |page=547 |access-date=15 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Indonesia. Angkatan Darat. Pusat Sedjarah Militer |title=Sedjarah TNI-Angkatan Darat, 1945–1965. &#91;Tjet. 1.&#93; |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KOyzISuyJlwC |year=1965 |publisher=PUSSEMAD |page=8 |access-date=15 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Indonesia. Departemen Penerangan |title=20 tahun Indonesia merdeka |year=1965 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QtsRAAAAMAAJ |volume=7 |publisher=Departemen Penerangan R.I. |page=545 |access-date=15 December 2015}}</ref><ref>Atjeh Post, Minggu Ke III September 1990. halaman I & Atjeh Post, Minggu Ke IV September 1990 halaman I</ref> In May 1945 the Acehnese rebelled again.<ref>{{cite book |author=Louis Jong |title=The collapse of a colonial society: the Dutch in Indonesia during the Second World War |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BpZuAAAAMAAJ |year=2002 |publisher=KITLV Press |isbn=978-90-6718-203-4 |page=189 |access-date=15 December 2015}}</ref> The religious ulama party gained ascendancy to replace district warlords ([[Ulèëbalang]]) party that formerly collaborated with the Dutch. Concrete bunkers still line the northernmost beaches.

=== Indonesian independence ===
{{Main|Cumbok affair}}
[[File:Teuku Daud Beureueh.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Daud Beureu'eh|Teungku Daud Beureu'eh]], 3rd governor of Aceh and the regional leader of Darul Islam in Aceh]]

After World War II, civil war erupted in 1945 between the district warlords party, that supported the return of a Dutch government, and the [[Persatuan Ulama Seluruh Aceh]] (PUSA) party that supported the newly proclaimed state of Indonesia. The ulama won, and the area remained free during the [[Indonesian National Revolution|Indonesian War of Independence]]. The Dutch military itself never attempted to invade Aceh. The civil war raised the religious ''ulama'' party leader, [[Daud Bereueh]], to the position of military governor of Aceh.<ref name="ibrahimy">M Nur El-Ibrahimy, ''Peranan Teungku M. Daud Bereueh dalam Pergolakan di Aceh'' [The Role of Mr. M. David in the Upheaval in Aceh], 2001.</ref><ref name="nasution">{{cite book |first1= A.H. |last1= Nasution |title= Seputar Perang Kemerdekaan Indonesia, Jilid II |trans-title= About the Indonesian War of Independence |date= 1977 |lang= id }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Teungku Muhammad Daud Beureueh |url=https://esi.kemdikbud.go.id/wiki/Teungku_Muhammad_Daud_Beureueh |date=2024 |publisher=[[Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology]] |lang= id}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |first1=Muhammad |last1=Ilham |title=Peran Tuhan Muhammad . Daud Pemberontakan 1953-1962 |trans-title=The Role Of The Lord Muhammad David: The Rebellion 1953–1962 |date=2016 |publisher= [[Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta]] |url=https://repository.uinjkt.ac.id/dspace/bitstream/123456789/32193/1/MUHAMMAD%20ILLHAM.pdf |lang=ace}}</ref>

=== Acehnese rebellion ===
The Acehnese revolted soon after its inclusion into an independent Indonesia, a situation created by a complex mix of what the Acehnese regarded as transgressions against and betrayals of their rights.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://moraref.kemenag.go.id/documents/article/25196304627931199 |title=Moraref |website=moraref.kemenag.go.id|access-date=2020-01-09 |archive-date=11 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611122755/https://moraref.kemenag.go.id/documents/article/25196304627931199 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Sukarno]], the first president of Indonesia, had reneged on his promise made on 16 June 1948 that Aceh would be allowed to rule itself in accordance with [[Sharia|Islamic Law]]. Aceh was politically dismantled and incorporated into the province of [[North Sumatra]] in 1950. This resulted in the Acehnese Rebellion of 1953–59 which was led by [[Daud Beureu'eh]] who on 20 September 1953 declared a free independent Aceh under the leadership of [[Sekarmadji Maridjan Kartosoewirjo]]. In 1959, the Indonesian government attempted to placate the Acehnese by offering wide-ranging freedom in matters relating to religion, education and culture.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2016 |title=Daud Beureu'eh and The Darul Islam Rebellion in Aceh |url=https://scholar.ui.ac.id/en/publications/daud-beureueh-and-the-darul-islam-rebellion-in-aceh |journal=Buletin Al-Turas|volume=22 |issue=1 |doi=10.15408/bat.v22i1.7221 |issn=2579-5848 |doi-access=free |last1=Apipudin |first1=Apipudin |pages=145–167 |access-date=9 January 2020 |archive-date=11 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611061933/https://scholar.ui.ac.id/en/publications/daud-beureueh-and-the-darul-islam-rebellion-in-aceh |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2nUJFtoHq7YC&q=di+tii+aceh+rebellion&pg=PA70 |title=Aceh, Indonesia: Securing the Insecure State |last=Drexler |first=Elizabeth F. |date=2009-04-06 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-2071-1|access-date=24 October 2020}}</ref>

=== Free Aceh Movement ===
{{Main|Free Aceh Movement|Insurgency in Aceh}}
[[File:Free Aceh Movement women soldiers.jpg|thumb|Women soldiers of the [[Free Aceh Movement]] with GAM commander Abdullah Syafei'i, 1999]]

During the 1970s, under an agreement with the Indonesian central government, American oil and gas companies began exploitation of Aceh natural resources. Alleged unequal distribution of profits between central government and the native people of Aceh induced Dr. [[Hasan Muhammad di Tiro]], former ambassador of Darul Islam,<ref name="ibrahimy" /> to call for an independent Aceh. He proclaimed independence in 1976.

The movement had a small number of followers initially, and di Tiro himself had to live in exile in Sweden. Meanwhile, the province followed [[Suharto]]'s policy of economic development and industrialization. During the late 1980s several security incidents prompted the Indonesian central government to take repressive measures and to send troops to Aceh. Human rights abuse was rampant for the next decade, resulting in many grievances on the part of the Acehnese toward the Indonesian central government. In 1990, the Indonesian government initiated [[1990–98 Indonesian military operations in Aceh|military operations against GAM]] by deploying more than 12,000 Indonesian troops in the region.{{citation needed|date=August 2014}}

During the late 1990s, chaos in Java and an ineffective central government gave an advantage to the Free Aceh Movement and resulted in the second phase of the rebellion, this time with large support from the Acehnese people. This support was demonstrated during the 1999 plebiscite in Banda Aceh which was attended by nearly half a million people (of four million population of the province). The Indonesian central government responded in 2001 by broadening Aceh's autonomy, giving its government the right to apply Sharia law more broadly and the right to receive direct foreign investment. This was again accompanied by repressive measures, however, and in 2003 [[2003-2004 Indonesian offensive in Aceh|an offensive began]] and a [[state of emergency]] was proclaimed in the province. The war was still ongoing when the tsunami disaster of 2004 struck the province.{{citation needed|date=August 2014}}

In 2001, villagers from the [[North Aceh Regency]] [[ExxonMobil violations in Indonesia|sued ExxonMobil for human rights abuses]] at the hands of Indonesian military units hired by the company for security for its natural gas operations. [[ExxonMobil]] denied fault for the allegations. After a series of attacks against its operations, the company shut down its Arun natural gas operations in the province.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/06/21/business/lawsuit-says-exxon-aided-rights-abuses-898244.html?pagewanted=all |work=The New York Times |title=Lawsuit Says Exxon Aided Rights Abuses |first=Neela |last=Banerjee |date=21 June 2001 |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-date=2 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200602044105/https://www.nytimes.com/2001/06/21/business/lawsuit-says-exxon-aided-rights-abuses-898244.html?pagewanted=all%2F |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Tsunami disaster ===
{{Main|2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami}}
[[File:US Navy 050102-N-9593M-040 A village near the coast of Sumatra lays in ruin after the Tsunami that struck South East Asia.jpg|thumb|Aftermath of the tsunami in Aceh]]
[[File:Museum_Tsunami_2.JPG|thumb|[[Aceh Tsunami Museum]] was created and designed to raise awareness of the disaster]]
The western coastal areas of Aceh, including the cities of [[Banda Aceh]], [[Calang]], and [[Meulaboh]], were among the areas hardest-hit by the [[tsunami]] resulting from the magnitude 9.2 [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|Indian Ocean earthquake]] on 26 December 2004.<ref>For details of the impact of the tsunami in Aceh, see Jayasuriya, Sisira and Peter McCawley in collaboration with Bhanupong Nidhiprabha, Budy P. Resosudarmo and Dushni Weerakoon, [http://www.adbi.org/book/2010/12/17/4252.asian.tsunami.aid.reconstruction/ ''The Asian Tsunami: Aid and Reconstruction after a Disaster''] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316081820/http://www.adbi.org/book/2010/12/17/4252.asian.tsunami.aid.reconstruction/ |date=16 March 2012 }}, Cheltenham UK and Northampton MA US: Edward Elgar and Asian Development Bank Institute, 2010.</ref> While estimates vary, over 170,000 people were killed by tsunami in Aceh and about 500,000 were left homeless. The tragedy of the tsunami was further compounded several months later, when the [[2005 Nias–Simeulue earthquake|2005 M8.6 Nias–Simeulue earthquake]] struck the sea bed between the islands of [[Simeulue Island]] in Aceh and [[Nias]] in North Sumatra. This second quake killed a further 1346 people on Nias and Simeulue, displaced tens of thousands more, and caused the tsunami response to be expanded to include Nias. The [[World Health Organization|World Health Organisation]] estimates a 100% increase in prevalence of mild and moderate [[mental disorder]]s in Aceh's general population after the tsunami.<ref>{{cite web |last=Wise |first=Cat |year=2011 |title=Tsunami-Devastated Aceh, an Epicenter of Mental Health Woes |publisher=PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/tsunami-devastated-aceh-at-epicenter-of-mental-health-activity/ |access-date=13 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410080134/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/tsunami-devastated-aceh-at-epicenter-of-mental-health-activity/ |archive-date=10 April 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center, misjudging the intensity of the Sumatra earthquake, sent out a bulletin that no tsunami was expected following a magnitude 8.0 quake based on historical data. Only when more accurate measurements of the quakes >9.0 magnitude became available did scientists at the warning center realize they were dealing with a basin-wide tsunami across the Indian Ocean.  When the tsunami hit, it was enormous, and the death toll in Aceh exceeded 100,000. There was no [[tsunami warning system]] in 2004. Tsunami warning systems have improved since the immense death toll drew international notice but in rural areas where many don't have internet access or cell phones it remains a challenge to communicate warnings in a timely manner.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/tsunami-changed-science|title=The day that changed tsunami science|date=24 December 2014|website=PBS NewsHour}}</ref> A warning system was put in place at the request of Aceh residents but it was disabled in 2007 after technical issues and a false alarm that caused a panic.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/jun/07/indonesia.ianmackinnon|title=Aceh residents disable tsunami warning system after false alarm|first1=Ian|last1=MacKinnon|first2=|last2=|date=7 June 2007|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref>

The population of Aceh before the December 2004 tsunami was 4,271,000 (2004). The population as of 15 September 2005 was 4,031,589, and in January 2014 was 4,731,705.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.depkes.go.id/downloads/Penduduk%20Kab%20Kota%20Umur%20Tunggal%202014.pdf |title=Estimasi Penduduk Menurut Umur Tunggal Dan Jenis Kelamin 2014 Kementerian Kesehatan |access-date=21 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140208021950/http://depkes.go.id/downloads/Penduduk%20Kab%20Kota%20Umur%20Tunggal%202014.pdf |archive-date=8 February 2014}}</ref> The 2020 census produced a total population of 5,274,871, comprising 2,647,563 males and 2,627,308 females.<ref name="Badan Pusat Statistik 2021">Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2021.</ref>

As of February 2006, more than a year after the tsunami, a large number of people were still living in barrack-style temporary living centers (TLC) or [[tent]]s. Reconstruction was visible everywhere, but due to the sheer scale of the disaster, and logistic difficulties, progress was slow. A study in 2007 estimated that 83.6% of the population had a psychiatric illness, while 69.8% suffers from severe emotional distress.<ref>Souza, R., Bernatsky, S., Ryes, R., Jong, K. (2007). "Mental Health Status of Vulnerable Tsunami-Affected Communities: A Survey in Aceh Province, Indonesia". Journal of Traumatic Stress. 20(3), 263–269</ref>

The ramifications of the tsunami went beyond the immediate impact to the lives and infrastructure of the Acehnese living on the coast. Since the disaster, the Acehnese rebel movement GAM, which had been fighting for independence against the Indonesian authorities for 29 years, has signed a peace deal (15 August 2005). The perception that the tsunami was punishment for insufficient piety in this proudly Muslim province is partly behind the increased emphasis on the importance of religion post-tsunami. This has been most obvious in the increased implementation of [[Sharia]] law, including the introduction of the controversial [[Wilayatul Hisbah]] or Syariah police. As homes are being built and people's basic needs are met, the people are also looking to improve the quality of [[education]], increase tourism, and develop responsible, sustainable industry. Well-qualified educators are in high demand in Aceh.
[[File:US Navy 050101-O-XXXXB-054 Boats washed ashore near local businesses in down town Aceh, Sumatra following a massive Tsunami that struck the area on the 26th of December 2004.jpg|thumb|left|Boats washed ashore near local businesses in down town Aceh, Sumatra following a massive tsunami that struck the area on 26 December 2004]]

While parts of the capital [[Banda Aceh]] were unscathed, the areas closest to the water, especially the areas of Kampung Jawa and Meuraxa, were completely destroyed. Most of the rest of the western coast of Aceh was severely damaged. Many towns completely disappeared. Other towns on Aceh's west coast hit by the disaster included [[Lhoknga]], [[Leupung]], Lamno, [[Patek, Aceh|Patek]], [[Calang]], [[Teunom]], and the island of [[Simeulue]]. Affected or destroyed towns on the region's north and east coasts were [[Pidie Regency]], [[Samalanga]], and [[Lhokseumawe]].

The area was slowly rebuilt after the disaster. The government initially proposed the creation of a two-kilometer [[buffer zone]] along low-lying coastal areas within which permanent construction was not permitted. This proposal was unpopular among some local inhabitants and proved impractical in most situations, especially [[fishing]] families that are dependent on living near to the sea.

The Indonesian government set up a special agency for Aceh reconstruction, the [[Badan Rehabilitasi dan Rekonstruksi]] (BRR) headed by [[Kuntoro Mangkusubroto]], a former Indonesian government minister. This agency had ministry level of authority and incorporated officials, professionals and community leaders from all backgrounds. Most of the reconstruction work was performed by local people using a mix of traditional methods and partial prefabricated structures, with funding coming from many international organizations and individuals, governments, and the people themselves.

The [[Government of Indonesia]] estimated in their Preliminary Damage and Losses Assessment<ref>{{cite web |author=Stefan G. Koeberle |url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/INDONESIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:21149942%7EpagePK:141137%7EpiPK:141127%7EtheSitePK:226309,00.html |title=Preliminary Damage and Losses Assessment on |publisher=Web.worldbank.org |access-date=13 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090904003022/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/INDONESIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:21149942%7EpagePK:141137%7EpiPK:141127%7EtheSitePK:226309,00.html |archive-date=4 September 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> that damages amounted to US$4.5 billion (before inflation, and US$6.2 billion including inflation). Three years after the tsunami, reconstruction was still ongoing. The [[World Bank]] monitored funding for reconstruction in Aceh and reported that US$7.7 billion had been earmarked for the reconstruction whilst at June 2007 US$5.8 billion had been allocated to specific reconstruction projects, of which US$3.4 billion had actually been spent (58%).

In 2009, the government opened a US$5.6 million [[Aceh Tsunami Museum|museum]] to commemorate the tsunami with photographs, stories, and a simulation of the earthquake that triggered the tsunami.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Indonesia Opens Tsunami Museum |magazine=[[The Irrawaddy]] |date=March–April 2009 |page=3}}</ref>

=== Peace agreement and contemporary history ===

[[File:Martti Ahtisaari.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Martti Ahtisaari]], facilitator in Aceh-Indonesia peace agreement]]

The 2004 tsunami helped trigger a peace agreement between the [[Free Aceh Movement|GAM]] and the Indonesian government. The mood in post-[[Suharto]] Indonesia in the liberal-democratic reform period, as well as changes in the Indonesian military, helped create an environment more favorable to peace talks. The roles of newly elected president [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]] and vice president [[Jusuf Kalla]] were highly significant.<ref>A very useful and detailed account of the negotiation process from the Indonesian side is in the book by the Indonesian key negotiator, [[Hamid Awaludin]], ''Peace in Aceh: Notes on the peace process between the Republic of Indonesia and the Aceh Freedom Movement (GAM) in Helsinki'', translated by Tim Scott, 2009, [[Centre for Strategic and International Studies (Indonesia)|Centre for Strategic and International Studies]], Jakarta. {{ISBN|978-979-1295-11-6}}.</ref> At the same time, the GAM leadership was undergoing changes, and the [[Military of Indonesia|Indonesian military]] had inflicted so much damage on the rebel movement that it had little choice but to negotiate with the central government.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/HH15Ae01.html |work=Asia Times |title=A happy, peaceful anniversary in Aceh |date=15 August 2006 |access-date=13 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203041743/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/HH15Ae01.html |archive-date=3 February 2017 |url-status=unfit}}</ref> The peace talks were first initiated by [[Juha Christensen (peace activist)|Juha Christensen]], a Finnish peace activist, and then formally facilitated by a [[Finland]]-based NGO, the [[Crisis Management Initiative]] led by former Finnish president [[Martti Ahtisaari]]. The resulting peace agreement, generally known as the [https://web.archive.org/web/20130418023930/http://www.aceh-mm.org/download/english/Helsinki%20MoU.pdf Helsinki MOU], was signed on 15 August 2005. Under the agreement Aceh would receive special autonomy and government troops would be withdrawn from the province in exchange for GAM's disarmament. As part of the agreement, the [[European Union]] dispatched 300 [[Aceh monitoring mission|monitors]]. Their mission expired on 15 December 2006, following local elections.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.eastwestcenter.org/publications/helsinki-agreement-more-promising-basis-peace-aceh |title=The Helsinki Agreement: A More Promising Basis for Peace in Aceh? |date=2005-12-15 |website=East-West Center|access-date=2020-01-09 |archive-date=8 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108100445/https://www.eastwestcenter.org/publications/helsinki-agreement-more-promising-basis-peace-aceh |url-status=live }}</ref>

Aceh has been granted broader autonomy through Aceh government legislation covering special rights agreed upon in 2002 as well as the right of the Acehnese to establish local political parties to represent their interests.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hillman |first=Ben |title='Power Sharing and Political Party Engineering in Conflict-Prone Societies: The Indonesian Experiment in Aceh |journal=Conflict Security and Development |volume=12 |issue=2 |year=2012 |pages=149–169 |doi=10.1080/14678802.2012.688291 |s2cid=154463777}}</ref> Human rights advocates protested that previous human rights violations in the province needed to be addressed, however.<ref>{{cite web |author=Veena Siddharth, Asia advocacy director |url=http://hrw.org/english/docs/2005/09/19/indone11764.htm |title=Next steps for Aceh after the peace pact &#124; Human Rights Watch |publisher=Hrw.org |date=27 August 2005 |access-date=13 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070815114905/http://hrw.org/english/docs/2005/09/19/indone11764.htm |archive-date=15 August 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/meetdocs/2004_2009/documents/dv/mou_aceh/mou_acehen.pdf |title=''Memorandum of Understanding between the Government of the Republic of Indonesia and the Free Aceh Movement'' |access-date=9 January 2020 |archive-date=5 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190905042216/https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meetdocs/2004_2009/documents/dv/mou_aceh/mou_acehen.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>