Editing Abruzzo (section)

==History==
{{Main|Kingdom of the Two Sicilies|Abruzzi e Molise}}
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| image1            = Lower Paleolithic tools from Abruzzo.jpg
| caption1          = [[Lower Paleolithic]] tools from [[Maiella]] and [[Foro (river)|Foro river]], at Museo La Civitella, [[Chieti]]
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| image2            = Rovine di Amiternum.JPG
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| caption2          = The Roman site [[Amiternum]]
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| image3            = Santa Maria di Collemaggio in 2020.jpg
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| caption3          = The church of [[Santa Maria di Collemaggio]] in [[L'Aquila]], after the reconstruction in 2020
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=== Prehistory ===
==== Paleolithic ====
Although an earlier presence cannot be ruled out, findings in the region related to [[archaic humans]] date from up to around 700,000 years ago ([[Acheulean Culture]]). Thousands of [[flint]] [[stone tool|tools]] and [[weapons]] have been collected on [[fluvial terrace]]s (e.g. Madonna del Freddo at [[Chieti]]) and near [[lake#Paleolakes|former lakes]] (e.g. Valle Giumentina at [[Caramanico Terme]] and [[Valle Peligna]] at [[Popoli]]). These testify to the presence of different [[Homo]] species over time, ranging from [[Homo erectus]] and [[Neanderthal]]s to modern humans. A site located at [[Popoli]] (Svolte di Popoli) also contained animal bones, which in that case was of a [[hippopotamus]]. The most important evidence of [[Neanderthals]] presence in the region was found in caves in [[Calascio]] and dates back to the [[Middle Paleolithic]].<ref name=museo>{{cite AV media|title=The People Of Abruzzo And Their Millennia Of History|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QbDu_cBBCnc|access-date=29 September 2024|publisher=[[Museo delle Genti d'Abruzzo]]}}</ref>

Significant evidence of [[Upper Paleolithic]] [[human]] populations has been found in various places, including the [[Fucine Lake|Fucino]] [[depression (geology)|depression]] and [[Montebello di Bertona]], the latter giving its name to a distinctive [[stoneworking]] technique called "Bertonian".<ref>{{treccani|facies-bertoniana|Facies Bertoniana}}</ref><ref>{{cite conference|last1=Tozzi|first1=Carlo|date=September 2001|title=Preistoria e protostoria dell'Abruzzo|language=IT|trans-title=Prehistory and protohistory of Abruzzo|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284631974|location=Chieti|publisher=Istituto italiano di preistoria e protostoria|access-date=8 March 2024}}</ref><ref name=Sapere.it>{{cite web|url=http://www.sapere.it/enciclopedia/Abruzzo+o+Abruzzi.html|title=Abruzzo o Abruzzi|website=Sapere.it|date=5 June 2020|publisher=[[De Agostini]]|language=IT|access-date=March 3, 2024|archive-date=7 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407053624/https://www.sapere.it/enciclopedia/Abruzzo+o+Abruzzi.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Treccani>{{treccani|abruzzo|Abruzzo}}</ref>

==== Neolithic ====
After the [[Mesolithic]] transition, which was characterized by [[climate variability and change|climate change]] and a lack of food resources, [[agriculture]] was introduced in Abruzzo by [[Early European Farmers|Neolithic farmers]] from the [[Middle East]]. A skeleton from Lama dei Peligni in the [[province of Chieti]] was dated back to 6,540 BC using radiometric dating.<ref>[[Journal of Anthropological Sciences]], "Towards a re-appraisal of the Early Neolithic skeleton from Lama dei Peligni (Abruzzo, Italy)" by Miliano Bruner and Giorgio Manzi, Vol. 81 (2003), pp. 69–78 (Abruzzo, Italy)</ref>

In Abruzzo and [[Marche]], [[villages]] typical of {{ill|Ripoli culture|it|Cultura di Ripoli}} in the [[5th millennium BC|5]]–[[6th millennium BC]] consisted of [[huts]], and were generally located on [[fluvial terrace]]s or [[hills]] overlooking [[rivers]]. In some cases they were defended by a [[moat]]. [[Caves]] were often used for [[rituals]]. They practiced [[agriculture]], [[husbandry]], [[hunting]], [[fishing]], and production of [[pottery]], which was painted or decorated.<ref>{{treccani|ripoli|Ripoli}}</ref><ref>{{treccani|repertorio-delle-culture-dell-europa-preistorica-neolitico_(Il-Mondo-dell'Archeologia)|Repertorio delle culture dell'Europa preistorica. Neolitico|Renata Grifoni Cremonesi|2004}}</ref> Other older Neolithic cultures present in Abruzzo are called Impressed Ceramic and [[Catignano]].<ref name=Sapere.it/><ref name=Treccani/><ref name=museo/>

==== Metal Ages ====
The [[Bronze Age]] saw the spread of [[Apennine culture]] and Subapennine culture in central-[[southern Italy]], including in Abruzzo. The former has been associated with [[pastoralism]], and the latter with [[agriculture]].<ref>{{treccani|appennico|Appenninico}}</ref><ref>{{treccani|subappennico|Subappenninico}}</ref> During the [[Late Bronze Age]], [[Proto-Villanovan culture]] emerged in Abruzzo.<ref>{{treccani|repertorio-delle-culture-dell-europa-preistorica-eta-del-bronzo_(Il-Mondo-dell'Archeologia)/|Repertorio delle culture dell'Europa preistorica. Età del Bronzo|Maria Antonietta Fugazzola Delpino|2004}}</ref>

There are sites of [[Iron Age]] [[necropolis|necropoli]] at Fiorano ([[Loreto Aprutino]]'s ''[[frazione]]''), Campovalano ([[Campli]]), [[Alfedena]] and [[Capestrano]].<ref name=Sapere.it/><ref name=Treccani/><ref name=museo/>

=== Ancient history ===
{{See also|Italic peoples|Roman expansion in Italy|Roman Italy}}
[[File:Guerriero di capestrano, da capestrano, 600-550 ac ca. 02.jpg|thumb|[[Warrior of Capestrano]] is the most famous example of Abruzzi [[Italic peoples|Italic]] funerary [[sculpture]] ([[Museo Archeologico Nazionale d'Abruzzo]], [[Chieti]]).]]
At the end of the [[Iron Age]], Abruzzo was inhabited by different tribes, including those defined by ancient Roman tradition as [[Sabelli]]:<ref>{{treccani|sabelli|Sabelli}}</ref> [[Oscan language|Oscan-speaking]] [[Pentri]], [[Caraceni (tribe)|Carricini]] and [[Frentani]], and, more generically, [[Osco-Umbrian languages|Osco-Umbrian]] [[Aequi]], [[Praetutii]], [[Vestini]], [[Marrucini]], [[Marsi]] and [[Peligni]].<ref name=Sapere.it/>

Considered strong warriors by [[Ancient history|ancient]] writers, they fought against the Romans in the [[Samnite Wars]] (from 343 to 290 BC). Some tribes accepted the alliance with the Romans, whereas others surrendered after the Samnite Wars. Following progressive [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanization]], they supported the Romans and contributed to many victories in the [[3rd century BC|3rd]] and [[2nd century BC|2nd centuries BC]].<ref>{{treccani|popoli-e-culture-dell-italia-preromana-i-popoli-dell-area-medio-adriatica_(Il-Mondo-dell'Archeologia)|Popoli e culture dell'Italia preromana. I popoli dell'area medio-adriatica|Gianluca Tagliamonte|2004}}</ref> They fought again with Rome during the [[Social War (91–87 BC)]] to gain [[political rights]] and created the ephemeral state called Italia with [[Corfinio]] as the capital. After the Social War, they obtained [[Roman citizenship]]<ref>{{treccani|guerre-sociali|Guerre sociali}}</ref> and in the [[Roman Empire|Imperial]] period favoured economic activities such as [[trade]] and [[pastoralism]].<ref name=Sapere.it/> On the basis of a [[Roman Italy#Augustan organization|division]] by [[Augustus]], the territory of what is now Abruzzo was part of "Regio V [[Picenum]]" and especially "Regio IV [[Sabina (region)|Sabina]] et [[Samnium]]". Much later, the region corresponded to the Valeria province, according to [[Diocletian]] decisions, and was among the first to see the arrival of [[Christianity]].<ref name=Italiana>{{treccani|abruzzo_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)|Abruzzo|Cesare Rivera, Roberto Amalgia, Camillo Giulio Bertoni, Ugo Antonielli, Ignazio Carlo Gavini, Giulio Fara|1929}}</ref><ref name=medievale>{{treccani|abruzzo_(Enciclopedia-dell'-Arte-Medievale)|Abruzzo|M. Andaloro|1991}}</ref><ref>{{treccani|l-italia-romana-delle-regiones-regio-v-picenum_(Il-Mondo-dell'Archeologia)/|L'Italia romana delle Regiones. Regio V Picenum. Il Mondo dell'Archeologia (2004)|Manlio Lilli|2004}}</ref>

Evidence from archeological sites shows that many cities in Abruzzo date back to ancient times. [[Corfinio]] was known as Corfinium when it was the chief city of the [[Paeligni]], and it became the capital of "Italia" against the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] during the [[Social War (91–87 BC)|Social War]].<ref>{{treccani|corfinium_(Enciclopedia-dell'-Arte-Antica)|Corfinium}}</ref> Today's [[Chieti]] has been inhabited since the [[Chalcolithic]] era, and was an important center of [[Marrucini]] (Teate Marrucinorum).<ref>{{treccani|teate-marrucinorum_(Enciclopedia-dell'-Arte-Antica)|Teate Marrucinorum|1997}}</ref> [[Atri, Abruzzo|Atri]] was known as Hatria<ref>{{treccani|atri|Atri}}</ref> and [[Teramo]] was known variously in ancient times as Interamnia and Teramne.<ref>{{treccani|teramo|Guerre|Teramo}}</ref> Pinna (today [[Penne, Abruzzo|Penne]]), Anxanum ([[Lanciano]]), Hortona ([[Ortona]]), Histonium ([[Vasto]]), [[Sulmona]] and Marruvium ([[San Benedetto dei Marsi]]) are among the settlements that are still inhabited, while others are no longer so, such as Cluviae near [[Casoli]].<ref>{{treccani|l-italia-romana-delle-regiones-regio-iv-sabina-et-samnium_(Il-Mondo-dell'Archeologia)|L'Italia romana delle Regiones. Regio IV Sabina et Samnium|Andrea R. Staffa|2004}}</ref>

=== Middle Ages ===
==== Early Middle Ages ====
{{See also|Ostrogothic Kingdom|Byzantine Italy|Kingdom of the Lombards|Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)}}
After the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]] and the [[Gothic War (535–554)|Gothic War]] between the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the [[Ostrogothic Kingdom]],<ref name=museo/> [[looting]] and devastation of [[monasteries]] and [[towns]] followed the arrival of [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] [[Lombards]] in the region. Around 572, the [[Lombards]] divided Abruzzo into the [[Duchy of Benevento]] and of [[Duchy of Spoleto|Spoleto]], with [[Faroald I of Spoleto]] becoming the first [[Duke of Spoleto]]. His successor, [[Ariulf of Spoleto]], annexed other territories: the former territories controlled by [[Aequi]], [[Marsi]], [[Peligni]] and [[Vestini]]. In the [[8th century]], [[Transamund II of Spoleto]] rebelled against [[Liutprand, King of the Lombards]], but was able to recover his duchy and also to include other remaining territories of former Valeria province.

After the beginning of domination by the [[Franks]], in 801, Teate (today's [[Chieti]]) also passed from the [[Lombards|Lombardic]] [[Duchy of Benevento]] to the Frankish [[Duchy of Spoleto]]. In 843, some territories were separated from the duchy (all the region together with the district of [[Rieti]] and except that of [[Teramo]] according to ''Liber provincialis''), with [[Celano]] as capital. So [[counts of Marsi]] from different lineages ruled "Marsia" from 843 to 926. In 871, [[Louis II of Italy]] founded, as the [[Carolingian Emperor]], a monastery, which would become very powerful in the history of Abruzzo ([[Abbey of San Clemente a Casauria]]). With the rule of [[Hugh of Italy]] from 926, the territories were divided: [[Penne, Abruzzo|Penne]] and [[Chieti|Teate]] to {{ill|Atto I|it|Gastaldato di Teate}}, and today's [[province of L'Aquila]] to [[Counts of Marsi|Berardo]].

==== Kingdom of Sicily ====
{{See also|Kingdom of Sicily|Norman conquest of southern Italy|Hohenstaufen#Ruling in Italy|Capetian House of Anjou}}
After two attempted conquests from two [[Normans|Norman]] [[Principality of Capua|princes of Capua]] in Abruzzo, two other Normans, [[Robert Guiscard]] and [[Robert I of Loritello]], conquered [[Chieti|Teate]], [[Corfinio|Valva]] and [[Penne, Abruzzo|Penne]]. Later, all Abruzzo was definitively conquered by [[Normans|Norman]] [[Roger II of Sicily]], and in 1156 his son [[William I of Sicily]] had these victories officially recognized by [[Pope Adrian IV]].

As part of the [[Kingdom of Sicily]], Abruzzo was involved in the conflicts following the death of [[William II of Sicily]] in 1189, and the territories sided with [[Constance I of Sicily|Constance, Queen of Sicily]] and [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor]], but after the death of the former in 1198, they were invaded by [[Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor]]. They were also involved in the conflicts between [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] (son of [[Constance I of Sicily|Queen Costance]]) and [[Pope Gregory IX]], including the [[War of the Keys]].<ref name=Italiana/><ref name=Sapere.it/> The administrative region of Abruzzo was formed in the 1230s, when [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] divided his realms into [[justiciarate]]s, with Abruzzo forming one of them.<ref name="Wine">{{cite web |url=http://winecountry.it/regions/abruzzo/ |title=WineCountry.it Abruzzo wine region of Italy |publisher=winecountry.it |access-date=8 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090331103332/http://winecountry.it/regions/abruzzo/ |archive-date=31 March 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The newly founded [[L'Aquila]] was destroyed by [[Manfred, King of Sicily]] (son of [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]]) in 1259, and supported in the [[Battle of Tagliacozzo]] (1268) the defeat of his nephew [[Conradin]] against [[Charles I of Anjou]], the new [[king of Sicily]]. Since the last half of the 13th century, [[L'Aquila]] took a central role in the region.<ref name=Italiana/><ref name=Sapere.it/> Abruzzo was divided into ''[[Abruzzo Citra]]'' (nearer Abruzzo) and ''Abruzzo Ultra'' (further Abruzzo) by [[Charles I of Anjou]] in the 1270s.<ref name="Wine" />

=== Kingdom of Naples ===
{{See also|Crown of Aragon|Italian War of 1494–1495|List of viceroys of Naples|Habsburg monarchy}}
[[File:Castello Caldoresco di Vasto - anteriore.JPG|thumb|[[Castello Caldoresco]], [[Vasto]]]]
After the rebellion called [[Sicilian Vespers]] and the [[War of the Sicilian Vespers|subsequent war]], in 1302 the [[Peace of Caltabellotta]] divided the former [[Kingdom of Sicily]] as follows: [[Sicily]] to the [[Crown of Aragon]] and the [[Southern Italy|Southern]] [[Italian Peninsula]] (including Abruzzo) still to the [[Capetian House of Anjou]].

The region was profoundly affected during the wars that followed a conspiracy which resulted in the [[Andrew, Duke of Calabria#Murder and aftermath|assassination of Andrew, Duke of Calabria]], the husband of Queen [[Joanna I of Naples]]. Different towns ([[L'Aquila]], [[Penne]], [[Chieti]], [[Lanciano]], [[Ortona]]) sided at first with the brother of the victim, [[Louis I of Hungary]]. In 1443, [[Alfonso V of Aragon]], [[King of Sicily]], conquered the [[Kingdom of Naples]]. In the same years, Abruzzo saw many battles, including the ones associated with the [[War of L'Aquila]]. Under the Aragonese rulers, [[L'Aquila]] started to become a military center, giving up its political and economic importance to [[Chieti]]. This period was characterized by economic decline and the spread of [[brigandage]], but coastal centers were favored by trade with the [[Republic of Venice]]'s overseas territories.

Shortly after the [[Italian War of 1494–1495]] carried out by [[Charles VIII of France]], the [[Kingdom of Naples]] returned to [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]]. In this and in the following conflict between the [[Kingdom of France]] and the [[Kingdom of Spain]] over the [[Kingdom of Naples]], Abruzzo sided with France, but Spain won in 1503 and started to dominate the [[Kingdom of Naples]] with its [[viceroys]].

In Abruzzo, the aristocracy vainly tried to regain more control when there was a [[Neapolitan Republic (1647–1648)|rebellion in the Kingdom of Naples]] led by a [[fisherman]] named [[Masaniello]] in 1647.

At the beginning of the 18th century, the region was affected by destructive earthquakes, which also devastated [[L'Aquila]] ([[1703 Apennine earthquakes]]) and [[Sulmona]] ([[1706 Abruzzo earthquake]]), and the [[War of the Spanish Succession]], with the [[Austria]]n siege at [[Pescara]] in 1707. In 1734, [[Charles III of Spain|Charles III]] of the [[House of Bourbon]], King of Spain, ended the short [[Habsburg monarchy|Hasburg Austrian]] domination, which contributed to [[Concentration of land ownership|large land concentrations]] in Abruzzo.<ref name=Sapere.it/><ref name="auto2">{{treccani|regno-di-napoli_(Dizionario-di-Storia)|Regno di Napoli|2010}}</ref><ref name=Italiana/>

=== French invasions ===
{{See also|French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars}}
[[File:Ferdinando Galiani.png|thumb|[[Ferdinando Galiani]], an 18th-century [[monetary economics|monetary economist]] from Abruzzo]]
In accordance with a general diffidence against the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] ideas, the Abruzzo population of different [[social class]]es rebelled in an improvised way against [[Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars|French invasion]] in 1798 and 1799. After the proclamation of the ephemeral [[Parthenopean Republic]], they continued to be hostile to French invaders (''[[Sanfedismo]]'').<ref name=Italiana/>

During the [[Kingdom of Naples (Napoleonic)|client kingdom]] (1806–1815) of [[Napoleon]], in 1806, Abruzzo Ultra was divided into two, as Abruzzo Ultra I and Abruzzo Ultra II (being divided at the [[Gran Sasso d'Italia]]); the same Citra/Ultra I/Ultra II scheme was used for Calabria.

=== Kingdom of Two Sicilies ===
{{See also|Kingdom of the Two Sicilies}}
The return of the [[Bourbons]] was granted by the [[Congress of Vienna]], while Abruzzo was plagued by decline and [[brigandage]]. The [[House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies]] established the [[Kingdom of the Two Sicilies]] in 1816, and ruled until [[Italian unification]] (also known as the ''Risorgimento'').<ref name=regions>{{Cite book |title=The regions of Italy; a reference guide |last=Domenico |first=Roy Palmer |publisher=Greenwood |year=2002 |pages=4}}</ref><ref name=Italiana/>

=== Italian unification ===
{{See also|Italian unification}}
Many rebelled again in 1821, 1841 and [[Revolutions of 1848|1848]], but the ideologies of insurgents were different, and included [[Liberalism|liberal]], [[Jacobins|Jacobin]], or [[reactionary]] ideas. During the [[unification of Italy]], in 1860, Abruzzo became part of the [[Kingdom of Sardinia]] and, in 1861, the [[Kingdom of Italy]]. Some supporters of the [[Bourbons]] fought against volunteers of [[Garibaldi]], and later banded with simple criminals to participate for political reasons in [[brigandage]], which would be eradicated years later. However, many accepted the new order with neither enthusiasm nor opposition.<ref name=Italiana/>

Since 1870, due to its economic conditions, Abruzzo saw massive emigration to other regions and countries, which contributed to [[Italian diaspora]].<ref name=Sapere.it/>

=== Fascism and World War II ===
During the [[Italian fascism]] period, [[Pescara]] became an important center for its [[Port of Pescara|homonymous port]], [[tourism]] and [[trade]].<ref name=Sapere.it/> With the [[Second World War]], Abruzzo was on the [[Gustav Line]], part of the German [[Winter Line]]. One of the most brutal battles was the [[Battle of Ortona]]. Abruzzo was the location of two [[List of World War II prisoner-of-war camps in Italy|prisoners of war camps]], Campo 21 in Chieti,<ref>{{Cite book|title=An extraordinary Italian imprisonment : the brutal truth of Campo 21, 1942–3|last=Lett|first=Brian|publisher=Pen and Sword|year=2014|location=Barnsley}}</ref> and Campo 78 in Sulmona. The Sulmona camp also served as a POW camp in [[World War I]]; much of the facility is still intact and attracts tourists interested in [[military history]].

=== Italian Republic ===
Despite the high level of destructions and victims caused by the [[Second World War]], there was remarkable development in the second half of the 20th century, which particularly favored [[Fucino]] and [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]] [[coast]]al areas.<ref name=Sapere.it/>

In the 1948 [[Italian Constitution]], Abruzzo was unified with Molise into the [[Abruzzi e Molise]] region, though in the first draft Abruzzo and Molise were separate. In 1963 Abruzzi e Molise was separated into the two regions of Abruzzo and Molise. Abruzzo Citeriore is now the [[province of Chieti]]. The [[province of Teramo]] and [[province of Pescara]] now comprise what was Abruzzo Ulteriore I. Abruzzo Ulteriore II is now the [[province of L'Aquila]].