Editing Abacus (section)

==History==

===Mesopotamia===
The [[Sumer]]ian abacus appeared between 2700 and 2300&nbsp;BC. It held a table of successive columns which delimited the successive orders of magnitude of their [[sexagesimal]] (base 60) number system.<ref>{{harvnb|Ifrah|2001|p=11}}</ref>

Some scholars point to a character in [[Akkadian language|Babylonian cuneiform]] that may have been derived from a representation of the abacus.<ref>{{harvnb|Crump|1992|p=188}}</ref> It is the belief of Old Babylonian<ref>{{harvnb|Melville|2001}}</ref> scholars, such as Ettore Carruccio, that Old Babylonians "seem to have used the abacus for the operations of addition and subtraction; however, this primitive device proved difficult to use for more complex calculations".<ref>{{harvnb|Carruccio|2006|p=14}}</ref>

===Egypt===
Greek historian [[Herodotus]] mentioned the abacus in [[Ancient Egypt]]. He wrote that the Egyptians manipulated the pebbles from right to left, opposite in direction to the Greek left-to-right method. Archaeologists have found ancient disks of various sizes that are thought to have been used as counters. However, wall depictions of this instrument are yet to be discovered.<ref name=Smith1>{{harvnb|Smith|1958|pp=157–160}}</ref>

===Persia===
At around 600&nbsp;BC, Persians first began to use the abacus, during the [[Achaemenid Empire]].<ref>{{harvnb|Carr|2014}}</ref> Under the [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]], [[Sassanian]], and [[Iran]]ian empires, scholars concentrated on exchanging knowledge and inventions with the countries around them – India, China, and the [[Roman Empire]] – which is how the abacus may have been exported to other countries.

=== Greece ===
[[Image:Salaminische Tafel Salamis Tablet nach Wilhelm Kubitschek Numismatische Zeitschrift Bd 31 Wien 1899 p.&nbsp;394 ff.jpg|thumb|upright|An early photograph of the Salamis Tablet, 1899. The original is marble and is held by the National Museum of Epigraphy, in Athens.]]
The earliest archaeological evidence for the use of the Greek abacus dates to the 5th century BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Ifrah|2001|p=15}}</ref> [[Demosthenes]] (384–322 BC) complained that the need to use pebbles for calculations was too difficult.<ref name=Will/><ref name=pull>{{harvnb|Pullan|1968|p=16}}</ref> A play by [[Alexis (poet)|Alexis]] from the 4th century BC mentions an abacus and pebbles for accounting, and both [[Diogenes]] and [[Polybius]] use the abacus as a metaphor for human behavior, stating "that men that sometimes stood for more and sometimes for less" like the pebbles on an abacus.<ref name=pull/> The Greek abacus was a table of wood or marble, pre-set with small counters in wood or metal for mathematical calculations.<ref name=":1" /> This Greek abacus was used in Achaemenid Persia, the [[Etruscan civilization]], Ancient Rome, and the Western Christian world until the [[French Revolution]].

The [[Salamis Tablet]], found on the Greek island [[Salamis Island|Salamis]] in 1846&nbsp;AD, dates to 300&nbsp;BC, making it the oldest counting board discovered so far. It is a slab of white marble {{convert|149|cm|0|abbr=on}} in length, {{convert|75|cm|0|abbr=on}} wide, and {{convert|4.5|cm|0|abbr=on}} thick, on which are 5 groups of markings. In the tablet's center is a set of 5 parallel lines equally divided by a vertical line, capped with a semicircle at the intersection of the bottom-most horizontal line and the single vertical line. Below these lines is a wide space with a horizontal crack dividing it. Below this crack is another group of eleven parallel lines, again divided into two sections by a line perpendicular to them, but with the semicircle at the top of the intersection; the third, sixth and ninth of these lines are marked with a cross where they intersect with the vertical line.<ref>{{harvnb|Williams|1997|pp=55–56}}</ref> Also from this time frame, the [[Darius Vase]] was unearthed in 1851. It was covered with pictures, including a "treasurer" holding a wax tablet in one hand while manipulating counters on a table with the other.<ref name="Will"/>

=== Rome ===
{{Main|Roman abacus}}
[[File:RomanAbacusRecon.jpg|right|thumb|Copy of a [[Roman abacus]]]]
The normal method of calculation in ancient Rome, as in Greece, was by moving counters on a smooth table. Originally pebbles ({{Langx|la|calculi}}) were used. Marked lines indicated units, fives, tens, etc. as in the [[Roman numeral]] system.

Writing in the 1st century BC, [[Horace]] refers to the wax abacus, a board covered with a thin layer of black wax on which columns and figures were inscribed using a stylus.<ref name=rome>{{harvnb|Ifrah|2001|p=18}}</ref>

One example of archaeological evidence of the [[Roman abacus]], shown nearby in reconstruction, dates to the 1st century AD. It has eight long grooves containing up to five beads in each and eight shorter grooves having either one or no beads in each. The groove marked I indicates units, X tens, and so on up to millions. The beads in the shorter grooves denote fives (five units, five tens, etc.) resembling a [[bi-quinary coded decimal]] system related to the [[Roman numerals]]. The short grooves on the right may have been used for marking Roman "ounces" (i.e. fractions).

=== Medieval Europe ===

The Roman system of 'counter casting' was used widely in medieval Europe, and persisted in limited use into the nineteenth century.<ref name=":1">{{harvnb|Pullan|1968|p=13}}</ref> Wealthy abacists used decorative minted counters, called [[jeton]]s.

Due to [[Pope Sylvester II]]'s reintroduction of the abacus with modifications, it became widely used in Europe again during the 11th century<ref>{{harvnb|Brown|2010|pp=81–82}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Brown|2011}}</ref> It used beads on wires, unlike the traditional Roman counting boards, which meant the abacus could be used much faster and was more easily moved.<ref>{{harvnb|Huff|1993|p=50}}</ref>

===China===
{{Main|Suanpan}}
[[File:abacus 6.png|thumb|A Chinese abacus (''[[suanpan]]'') (the number represented in the picture is 6,302,715,408)]]
{{Infobox Chinese
|t=算盤
|s=算盘
|l="calculating tray"
|p=suànpán
|mi={{IPAc-cmn|s|uan|4|.|p|an|2}}
|j=syun<sup>3</sup>-pun<sup>4</sup>
|y=syun-pùhn
|ci={{IPAc-yue|s|yun|3|p|un|2}}
|poj=sǹg-pôaⁿ
|tl=sǹg-puânn
}}
The earliest known written documentation of the Chinese abacus dates to the 2nd century BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Ifrah|2001|p=17}}</ref>

The Chinese abacus, also known as the ''[[suanpan]]'' (算盤/算盘, lit. "calculating tray"), comes in various lengths and widths, depending on the operator. It usually has more than seven rods. There are two beads on each rod in the upper deck and five beads each in the bottom one, to represent numbers in a [[bi-quinary coded decimal]]-like system. The beads are usually rounded and made of [[hardwood]]. The beads are counted by moving them up or down towards the beam; beads moved toward the beam are counted, while those moved away from it are not.<ref name="Ryerson">{{harvnb|Fernandes|2003}}</ref> One of the top beads is 5, while one of the bottom beads is 1. Each rod has a number under it, showing the place value. The ''suanpan'' can be reset to the starting position instantly by a quick movement along the horizontal axis to spin all the beads away from the horizontal beam at the center.

The prototype of the Chinese abacus appeared during the [[Han dynasty]], and the beads are oval. The [[Song dynasty]] and earlier used the 1:4 type or four-beads abacus similar to the modern abacus including the shape of the beads commonly known as Japanese-style abacus.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Difference Between Chinese and Japanese Abacus |url=https://abakus-center.com/blog/chinese-and-japanese-abacus |access-date=2024-05-29 |website=Abakus Europe |language=en}}</ref>

In the early [[Ming dynasty]], the abacus began to appear in a 1:5 ratio. The upper deck had one bead and the bottom had five beads.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=August 22, 2020|title=中国算盘 {{!}} 清华大学科学博物馆|url=http://tsm.tsinghua.edu.cn/?p=2769|url-status=live|access-date=August 8, 2021|website=Department of the History of Science, Tsinghua University|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808105557/http://tsm.tsinghua.edu.cn/?p=2769 |archive-date=August 8, 2021 }}</ref> In the late Ming dynasty, the abacus styles appeared in a 2:5 ratio.<ref name=":0" />  The upper deck had two beads, and the bottom had five.

Various calculation techniques were devised for ''Suanpan'' enabling efficient calculations. Some schools teach students how to use it.

In the long scroll ''[[Along the River During the Qingming Festival]]'' painted by [[Zhang Zeduan]] during the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1297), a ''suanpan'' is clearly visible beside an account book and doctor's prescriptions on the counter of an [[apothecary]]'s (Feibao).

The similarity of the [[Roman abacus]] to the Chinese one suggests that one could have inspired the other, given evidence of a trade relationship between the [[Roman Empire]] and China. However, no direct connection has been demonstrated, and the similarity of the abacuses may be coincidental, both ultimately arising from counting with five fingers per hand. Where the Roman model (like most modern Korean and [[#Japan|Japanese]]) has 4 plus 1 bead per decimal place, the standard ''suanpan'' has 5 plus 2. Incidentally, this ancient [[Chinese units of measurement|Chinese calculation system]] 市用制 (''Shì yòng zhì'') allows use with a [[hexadecimal]] numeral system (or any [[Radix|base]] up to 18) which is used for traditional Chinese measures of weight [(''jīn'' (斤) and ''liǎng'' (兩)]. (Instead of running on wires as in the Chinese, Korean, and Japanese models, the Roman model used grooves, presumably making arithmetic calculations much slower).

Another possible source of the ''suanpan'' is Chinese [[counting rods]], which operated with a [[decimal|decimal system]] but lacked the concept of [[0 (number)|zero]] as a placeholder.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}} The zero was probably introduced to the Chinese in the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907) when travel in the Indian Ocean and the [[Middle East]] would have provided direct contact with India, allowing them to acquire the concept of zero and the [[decimal point]] from Indian merchants and mathematicians.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}

===India===

The ''[[Abhidharmakośabhāṣya]]'' of [[Vasubandhu]] (316–396), a Sanskrit work on [[Buddhist philosophy]], says that the second-century CE philosopher [[Vasumitra]] said that "placing a wick (Sanskrit ''vartikā'') on the number one (''ekāṅka'') means it is a one while placing the wick on the number hundred means it is called a hundred, and on the number one thousand means it is a thousand".  It is unclear exactly what this arrangement may have been. Around the 5th century, Indian clerks were already finding new ways of recording the contents of the abacus.<ref>{{harvnb|Körner|1996|p=232}}</ref> Hindu texts used the term ''śūnya'' (zero) to indicate the empty column on the abacus.<ref>{{harvnb|Mollin|1998|p=3}}</ref>

===Japan===
{{Main|Soroban}}
[[File:Soroban.JPG|thumb|Japanese [[soroban]]]]
In Japan, the abacus is called ''[[soroban]]'' ({{lang|ja|算盤, そろばん}}, lit. "counting tray"). It was imported from China in the 14th century.<ref name=Gul>{{harvnb|Gullberg|1997|p=169}}</ref> It was probably in use by the working class a century or more before the ruling class adopted it, as the class structure obstructed such changes.<ref>{{harvnb|Williams|1997|p=65}}</ref> The 1:4 abacus, which removes the seldom-used second and fifth bead, became popular in the 1940s.

Today's Japanese abacus is a 1:4 type, four-bead abacus, introduced from China in the [[Muromachi period|Muromachi era]]. It adopts the form of the upper deck one bead and the bottom four beads. The top bead on the upper deck was equal to five and the bottom one is similar to the Chinese or Korean abacus, and the decimal number can be expressed, so the abacus is designed as a 1:4 device. The beads are always in the shape of a diamond. The quotient division is generally used instead of the division method; at the same time, in order to make the multiplication and division digits consistently use the division multiplication. Later, Japan had a 3:5 abacus called 天三算盤, which is now in the Ize Rongji collection of Shansi Village in [[Yamagata, Yamagata|Yamagata]] City. Japan also used a 2:5 type abacus.

The four-bead abacus spread, and became common  around the world. Improvements to the Japanese abacus arose in various places. In China, an abacus with an aluminium frame and plastic beads has been used. The file is next to the four beads, and pressing the "clearing" button puts the upper bead in the upper position, and the lower bead in the lower position.

The abacus is still manufactured in Japan, despite the proliferation, practicality, and affordability of pocket [[electronic calculator]]s. The use of the soroban is still taught in Japanese [[primary school]]s as part of [[mathematics]], primarily as an aid to faster mental calculation. Using visual imagery, one can complete a calculation as quickly as with a physical instrument.<ref>{{harvnb|Murray|1982}}</ref>

===Korea===
The Chinese abacus migrated from China to [[Korea]] around 1400&nbsp;AD.<ref name=Will>{{harvnb|Williams|1997|p=55}}</ref><ref name="thocp">{{harvnb|Anon|2002}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jami|1998|p=4}}</ref> Koreans call it ''jupan'' (주판), ''supan'' (수판) or ''jusan'' (주산).<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2013}}</ref> The four-beads abacus (1:4) was introduced during the [[Goryeo|Goryeo Dynasty]]. The 5:1 abacus was introduced to Korea from China during the Ming Dynasty.

===Native America===
[[File:Quipu.png|thumb|Representation of an [[Inca]] [[quipu]]]]
[[File:Yupana 1.png|thumb|A [[yupana]] as used by the Incas]]
Some sources mention the use of an abacus called a ''nepohualtzintzin'' in ancient [[Aztec]] culture.<ref>{{harvnb|Sanyal|2008}}</ref> This [[Mesoamerica]]n abacus used a 5-digit base-20 system.<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2004}}</ref> The word Nepōhualtzintzin {{IPA|nah|nepoːwaɬˈt͡sint͡sin}} comes from [[Nahuatl]], formed by the roots; ''Ne'' – personal -; ''pōhual'' or ''pōhualli'' {{IPA|nah|ˈpoːwalːi}} – the account -; and ''tzintzin'' {{IPA|nah|ˈt͡sint͡sin}} – small similar elements. Its complete meaning was taken as: counting with small similar elements. Its use was taught in the [[Calmecac]] to the ''temalpouhqueh'' {{IPA|nah|temaɬˈpoʍkeʔ}}, who were students dedicated to taking the accounts of skies, from childhood.

The Nepōhualtzintzin was divided into two main parts separated by a bar or intermediate cord. In the left part were four beads. Beads in the first row have unitary values (1, 2, 3, and 4), and on the right side,  three beads had values of 5, 10, and 15, respectively. In order to know the value of the respective beads of the upper rows, it is enough to multiply by 20 (by each row), the value of the corresponding count in the first row.

The device featured 13 rows with 7 beads, 91 in total. This was a basic number for this culture. It had a close relation to natural phenomena, the underworld, and the cycles of the heavens. One Nepōhualtzintzin (91) represented the number of days that a season of the year lasts, two Nepōhualtzitzin (182) is the number of days of the corn's cycle, from its sowing to its harvest, three Nepōhualtzintzin (273) is the number of days of a baby's gestation, and four Nepōhualtzintzin (364) completed a cycle and approximated one year. When translated into modern computer arithmetic, the Nepōhualtzintzin amounted to the rank from 10 to 18 in [[floating point]], which precisely calculated large and small amounts, although round off was not allowed.

The rediscovery of the Nepōhualtzintzin was due to the Mexican engineer David Esparza Hidalgo,<ref>{{harvnb|Hidalgo|1977|p=94}}</ref> who in his travels throughout Mexico found diverse engravings and paintings of this instrument and reconstructed several of them in gold, jade, encrustations of shell, etc.<ref>{{harvnb|Hidalgo|1977|pp=94–101}}</ref> Very old Nepōhualtzintzin are attributed to the [[Olmec]] culture, and some bracelets of [[Maya peoples|Maya]]n origin, as well as a diversity of forms and materials in other cultures.

Sanchez wrote in ''Arithmetic in Maya'' that another base 5, base 4 abacus had been found in the [[Yucatán Peninsula]] that also computed calendar data. This was a finger abacus, on one hand, 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 were used; and on the other hand 0, 1, 2, and 3 were used. Note the use of zero at the beginning and end of the two cycles.

The [[quipu]] of the [[Inca]]s was a system of colored knotted cords used to record numerical data,<ref>{{harvnb|Albree|2000|p=42}}</ref> like advanced [[tally stick]]s – but not used to perform calculations. Calculations were carried out using a [[yupana]] ([[Quechua languages|Quechua]] for "counting tool"; see figure) which was still in use after the conquest of Peru. The working principle of a yupana is unknown, but in 2001 Italian mathematician De Pasquale proposed an explanation. By comparing the form of several yupanas, researchers found that calculations were based using the [[Fibonacci sequence]] 1, 1, 2, 3, 5 and powers of 10, 20, and 40 as place values for the different fields in the instrument. Using the Fibonacci sequence would keep the number of grains within any one field at a minimum.<ref>{{harvnb|Aimi|De Pasquale|2005}}</ref>

===Russia===
[[File:Schoty abacus.jpg|thumb|Russian schoty]]
The Russian abacus, the ''schoty'' ({{Langx|ru|счёты}}, plural from {{Langx|ru|счёт}}, counting), usually has a single slanted deck, with ten beads on each wire (except one wire with four beads for quarter-[[ruble]] fractions). 4-bead wire was introduced for quarter-[[Russian ruble|kopek]]s, which were minted until 1916.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sokolov |first1=Viatcheslav |last2=Karelskaia |first2=Svetlana |last3=Zuga |first3=Ekaterina |date=February 2023 |title=The schoty (abacus) as the phenomenon of Russian accounting |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/10323732221132005 |journal=Accounting History |language=en |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=90–118 |doi=10.1177/10323732221132005 |s2cid=256789240 |issn=1032-3732}}</ref> The Russian abacus is used vertically, with each wire running horizontally. The wires are usually bowed upward in the center, to keep the beads pinned to either side. It is cleared when all the beads are moved to the right. During manipulation, beads are moved to the left. For easy viewing, the middle 2 beads on each wire (the 5th and 6th bead) usually are of a different color from the other eight. Likewise, the left bead of the thousands wire (and the million wire, if present) may have a different color.

The Russian abacus was in use in shops and markets throughout the [[Commonwealth of Independent States|former Soviet Union]], and its usage was taught in most schools until the 1990s.<ref>{{harvnb|Burnett|Ryan|1998|p=7}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Hudgins|2004|p=219}}</ref> Even the 1874 invention of [[mechanical calculator]], [[Odhner Arithmometer|Odhner arithmometer]], had not replaced them in Russia. According to [[Yakov Perelman]], some businessmen attempting to import calculators into the Russian Empire were known to leave in despair after watching  a skilled abacus operator.<ref>''Arithmetic for Entertainment'', [[Yakov Perelman]], page 51.</ref> Likewise, the mass production of Felix [[arithmometer]]s since 1924 did not significantly reduce abacus use in the [[Soviet Union]].<ref>{{harvnb|Leushina|1991|p=427}}</ref> The Russian abacus began to lose popularity only after the mass production of domestic [[Pocket calculator|microcalculators]] in 1974.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1975 |title=The Abacus Today |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/30211432 |journal=Mathematics in School |volume=4 |issue=5 |pages=18–19 |jstor=30211432 |issn=0305-7259}}</ref>

The Russian abacus was brought to France around 1820 by mathematician [[Jean-Victor Poncelet]], who had served in [[Napoleon]]'s army and had been a [[prisoner of war]] in Russia.<ref>{{harvnb|Trogeman|Ernst|2001|p=24}}</ref> To Poncelet's French contemporaries, it was something new. Poncelet used it, not for any applied purpose, but as a teaching and demonstration aid.<ref>{{harvnb|Flegg|1983|p=72}}</ref> The [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and the [[Armenians|Armenian]] people used abacuses similar to the Russian schoty. It was named a ''coulba'' by the Turks and a ''choreb'' by the Armenians.<ref>{{harvnb|Williams|1997|p=64}}</ref>