Editing A cappella (section)

==Religious origins==
A cappella music was originally used in religious music, especially [[church music]] as well as [[anasheed]] and [[zemirot]]. [[Gregorian chant]] is an example of a cappella singing, as is the majority of secular vocal music from the [[Renaissance music|Renaissance]]. The [[Madrigal (music)|madrigal]], up until its development in the early [[Baroque music|Baroque]] into an instrumentally accompanied form, is also usually in a cappella form. The [[Psalms]] note that some early songs were accompanied by string instruments, though Jewish and Early Christian music was largely a cappella;<ref>{{Cite book|title=Music in ancient Judaism and early Christianity|last=Smith|first= John Arthur|isbn=978-1409421610|location=Farnham, Surrey|oclc=715159344}}</ref> the use of instruments has subsequently increased within both of these religions as well as in Islam.

===Christian===
The [[polyphony]] of Christian (predominantly Catholic) a cappella music began to develop in Europe around the 9th century AD with the practice of [[organum]], reaching its height between the 14th and 16th centuries with compositions by composers of the [[Franco-Flemish school]] (such as [[Guillaume Du Fay]], [[Johannes Ockeghem]], and [[Josquin des Prez]]).<ref name=EB>{{harvnb|Hoiberg|2010|p=1}}</ref> The early a cappella polyphonies were sometimes doubled with other instruments, which were often wind or string instruments, or organs. By the 16th century, a cappella [[polyphony]] had further developed, but gradually, the [[cantata]] began to take the place of a cappella forms.<ref name=EB/> Sixteenth-century a cappella polyphony, nonetheless, continued to influence church composers throughout this period and to the present day. Recent evidence has shown that some of the early pieces by [[Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina|Palestrina]], such as those written for the Sistine Chapel, were intended to be accompanied by an organ "doubling" for some or all of the voices.<ref name=EB/>

Other composers that utilized the a cappella style, if only for the occasional piece, were [[Claudio Monteverdi]] and his ''Lagrime d'amante al sepolcro dell'amata'' (A lover's tears at his beloved's grave), which was composed in 1610,<ref>{{harvnb|Taruskin|2005a|p=6}}</ref> and [[Andrea Gabrieli]] when upon his death many choral pieces were discovered, one of which was in the unaccompanied style.<ref>{{harvnb|Taruskin|2005|p=780}}</ref> Learning from the preceding two composers, [[Heinrich Schütz]] utilized the a cappella style in numerous pieces; chief among these were the pieces in the [[oratorio]] style, which were traditionally performed during the Easter week and dealt with the religious subject matter of that week, such as [[Passion (Christianity)|the Passion]]. Five of Schutz's ''Historien'' were Easter pieces, and of these the latter three, which dealt with the passion from three different viewpoints, those of [[Matthew the Apostle|Matthew]], [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]] and [[John the Evangelist|John]], were all done a cappella style. The parts of the crowd were sung while the solo parts which were the quoted parts from either Christ or the authors were performed in a [[plainchant]].<ref>{{harvnb|Taruskin|2005a|p=73}}</ref>

In the Byzantine Rite of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and the [[Eastern Catholic Churches]], the music performed in the liturgies is exclusively sung without instrumental accompaniment. Early Russian ''musika'' which started appearing in the late 17th century, in what was known as ''khorovïye kontsertï'' (choral concertos) made a cappella adaptations of Venetian-styled pieces, such as the treatise, ''Grammatika musikiyskaya'' (1675), by [[Nikolai Diletsky]].<ref>{{harvnb|Taruskin|2005b|p=234}}</ref> Divine Liturgies and Western Rite Masses composed by famous composers such as [[Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom (Tchaikovsky)|Peter Tchaikovsky]], [[Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom (Rachmaninoff)|Sergei Rachmaninoff]], [[Alexander Arkhangelsky (composer)|Alexander Arkhangelsky]], and [[Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom (Leontovych)|Mykola Leontovych]] are examples.

Instruments have divided Christendom since their introduction into worship. They were considered a Roman Catholic innovation, not widely practiced until the 18th century, and were opposed vigorously in worship by a number of [[Protestant Reformers]], including [[Martin Luther]],<ref name=M&S>{{harvnb|M'Clintock|Strong|1894|p=762}}</ref> [[Ulrich Zwingli]], [[John Calvin]],<ref name=Calvin>{{harvnb|Calvin|2009}}</ref> and [[John Wesley]].<ref name=Clarke>{{harvnb|Clarke|1844|p=684}}</ref> Opponents of [[musical instruments in the Christian worship]] believe that such opposition is supported by the Christian scriptures and Church history.<ref name=kurfees>{{harvnb|Kurfees|1911}}</ref> There is no reference to instrumental music in early church worship in the New Testament, or in the worship of churches for the first six centuries.<ref name=McKinnon>{{harvnb|McKinnon|1965|pp=263, 265}}</ref><ref name=Bales>{{harvnb|Bales|1973|p=351}}</ref> Several reasons have been posited throughout church history for the absence of instrumental music in church worship.{{refn|group="nb"|The absence of instrumental music is rooted in various hermeneutic principles (ways of interpreting the Bible) which determine what is appropriate for worship. Among such principles are the [[regulative principle of worship]] (Ulrich Zwingli), [[Sola scriptura]] (Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli), and the history of [[hymn]] in "Christianity". Dispensationalism emphasizes the differences between the old (Law of Moses) and the new (Jesus and the Apostles) covenants, emphasizing that the majority of the practices from the Law of Moses were replaced by the teachings of Jesus and the Apostles. The absence of instrumental music in early church worship is significant given the abundance of Hebrew Bible references and commands to worship God with harp, lyre and cymbal. After several hundred years of Tabernacle worship without references to instrumental music, King David (c. 1500 BC) introduced musical instruments into Temple worship reportedly because of a commandment from God, complete with who was to sing, who was to play, and what instruments were to be used.<ref>{{bibleverse|2|Chronicles|29:25-29}}</ref>}}

Those who do not adhere to the [[regulative principle]] of interpreting Christian scripture, believe that limiting praise to the unaccompanied chant of the early church is not commanded in scripture, and that churches in any age are free to offer their songs with or without musical instruments. Those who subscribe to this interpretation believe that since the Christian scriptures never counter instrumental language with any negative judgment on instruments, opposition to instruments instead comes from an interpretation of history. There is no written opposition to musical instruments in any setting in the first century and a half of Christian churches (33–180 AD).<ref name=McKinnon2>{{harvnb|McKinnon|1989|p=2}}</ref> The use of instruments for Christian worship during this period is also undocumented. Toward the end of the 2nd century, Christians began condemning the instruments themselves.<ref name=McKinnon3>{{harvnb|McKinnon|1998|p=72}}</ref> Those who oppose instruments today believe these Church Fathers had a better understanding of God's desire for the church,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Library : The Meaning of the Patristic Polemic Against Musical Instruments |url=https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?recnum=9134 |access-date=2024-05-19 |website=www.catholicculture.org}}</ref> but there are significant differences between the teachings of these Church Fathers and Christian opposition to instruments today.

* Modern Christians typically believe {{Citation needed|date=April 2025}} it is acceptable to play instruments or to attend weddings, funerals, banquets, etc., where instruments are heard playing religious music. The Church Fathers made no exceptions.<ref name=McKinnon3/> Since the New Testament never condemns instruments themselves, much less in any of these settings, author [[Everett Ferguson]] wrote that "the church Fathers go beyond the New Testament in pronouncing a negative judgment on musical instruments."<ref>{{harvnb|Ferguson|1972|p=74}}</ref>
* Written opposition to instruments in worship began near the turn of the 5th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Ferguson|1972|pp=52, 53}}</ref> Modern opponents of instruments typically do not make the same assessment of instruments as these writers,{{refn|group="nb"|Rather than calling the use of instruments "evil", modern opposition typically uses terms like "unspiritual"<ref>{{harvnb|Ferguson|1972|p=88}}</ref> or an Old Testament "shadow".<ref>{{harvnb|Ferguson|Lewis|West|1984|p=109}}</ref>}} who argued that God had allowed David the "evil" of using musical instruments in praise.<ref>{{harvnb|McKinnon|1989|p=7}}</ref> While the Old Testament teaches that God specifically asked for musical instruments,<ref name="bibleverse|2|Chronicles|29:25">{{bibleverse|2|Chronicles|29:25}}</ref> modern concern is for worship based on the New Testament.

Since "a cappella" singing brought a new polyphony (more than one note at a time) with instrumental accompaniment, it is not surprising that Protestant reformers who opposed the instruments (such as Calvin and Zwingli) also opposed the polyphony.<ref>{{harvnb|Weiss|Taruskin|1984|p=107}}</ref> While Zwingli was destroying organs in Switzerland&nbsp;– Luther called him a fanatic&nbsp;– the Church of England was burning books of polyphony.<ref>{{harvnb|Weiss|Taruskin|1984|p=109}}</ref>

Some [[Holiness Churches]] such as the [[Free Methodist Church]] opposed the use of musical instruments in church worship until the mid-20th century. The Free Methodist Church allowed for local church decision on the use of either an organ or piano in the 1943 Conference before lifting the ban entirely in 1955. The [[Reformed Free Methodist Church]] and [[Evangelical Wesleyan Church]] were formed as a result of a schism with the Free Methodist Church, with the former retaining a cappella worship and the latter retaining the rule limiting the number of instruments in the church to the piano and organ.<ref name="Jones1974"/>
Present-day Christian religious bodies known for conducting their worship services without musical accompaniment include many [[Oriental Orthodox Church]]es (such as the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]]),<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://www.stpauloc.org/New-Visitors |publisher=St. Paul American Coptic Orthodox Church |access-date=28 July 2020 |language=en}}</ref> many [[Anabaptist]] communities (including [[Old Order Movement|Old Order Anabaptist groups]]—such as the [[Amish]], [[Old German Baptist Brethren]], [[Old Order Mennonites]], as well as Conservative Anabaptist groups—such as the [[Dunkard Brethren Church]] and [[Conservative Mennonites]]),<ref name="DBC2021">{{cite book |title=Dunkard Brethren Church Polity |date=1 November 2021 |publisher=[[Dunkard Brethren Church]] |page=9}}</ref> some [[Presbyterian]] churches devoted to the [[regulative principle of worship]], [[Old Regular Baptist]]s, [[Primitive Baptist]]s, [[Plymouth Brethren]], [[Churches of Christ]], Church of God, the [[Reformed Free Methodist Church|Reformed Free Methodists]],<ref name="Jones1974">{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Charles Edwin |title=A guide to the study of the holiness movement |date=1974 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0810807037 |page=[https://archive.org/details/guidetostudyoft00char/page/685 685] |language=en |url=https://archive.org/details/guidetostudyoft00char/page/685 }}</ref> [[Doukhobor]]s, and the [[Byzantine Rite]] of Eastern Christianity.<ref name=Ware>{{harvnb|Ware|1997|p=268}}</ref> Certain [[high church]] services and other musical events in liturgical churches (such as the Roman Catholic [[Mass in the Catholic Church|Mass]] and the [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] [[Divine Service (Lutheran)|Divine Service]]) may be a cappella, a practice remaining from apostolic times. Many [[Mennonite]]s also conduct some or all of their services without instruments. [[Sacred Harp]], a type of [[folk music]], is an a cappella style of religious singing with [[shape notes]], usually sung at singing conventions.

===Jewish===

While worship in the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] included musical instruments,<ref>{{bibleverse|2|Chronicles|29:25–29:27}}</ref> traditional Jewish religious services in the Synagogue, both before and after the last destruction of the Temple, did not include musical instruments<ref>{{harvnb|Price|2005|p=68}}</ref> given the practice of scriptural [[Hebrew cantillation|cantillation]].<ref>{{harvnb|McKinnon|1998|p=85}}</ref> The use of musical instruments is traditionally forbidden on the Sabbath out of concern that players would be tempted to repair (or tune) their instruments, which is forbidden on those days. (This prohibition has been relaxed in many Reform and some Conservative congregations.) Similarly, when Jewish families and larger groups sing traditional Sabbath songs known as [[zemirot]] outside the context of formal religious services, they usually do so a cappella, and Bar and Bat Mitzvah celebrations on the Sabbath sometimes feature entertainment by a cappella ensembles. During [[the Three Weeks]] musical instruments are prohibited. Many Jews consider a portion of the 49-day period of the [[Counting of the Omer|counting of the omer]] between Passover and Shavuot to be a time of semi-mourning and instrumental music is not allowed during that time.<ref>{{harvnb|Melamed|2013}}</ref> This has led to a tradition of a cappella singing sometimes known as ''sefirah'' music.<ref name="Shircago">{{harvnb|Shircago|2013}}</ref>

The popularization of the Jewish chant may be found in the writings of the Jewish philosopher [[Philo]], born 20 BC. Weaving together Jewish and Greek thought, Philo promoted praise without instruments, and taught that "silent singing" (without even vocal chords) was better still.<ref>{{harvnb|Ferguson|1972|pp=39–41}}</ref> This view parted with the Jewish scriptures, where Israel offered praise with instruments by God's own command<ref name="bibleverse|2|Chronicles|29:25"/> The [[shofar]] is the only temple instrument still being used today in the synagogue,<ref>{{harvnb|Olson|1967|p=562}}</ref> and it is only used from [[Rosh Chodesh]] [[Elul]] through the end of [[Yom Kippur]]. The shofar is used by itself, without any vocal accompaniment, and is limited to a very strictly defined set of sounds and specific places in the synagogue service.<ref>{{harvnb|Alleman|2011}}</ref> However, silver [[trumpet]]s, as described in Numbers 10:1-18,<ref>{{bibleverse|Numbers|10:1-10}}</ref> have been made in recent years and used in prayer services at the [[Western Wall]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishpress.com/news/silver-trumpets-pierce-the-heavens-in-prayer-rally-opposite-temple-mount/2016/03/23/ |title=Silver Trumpets Pierce the Heavens in Prayer Rally Opposite Temple Mount |date=23 March 2016|website=JewishPress.com }}</ref>