Editing 1998 Winter Olympics (section)

==Organization==
[[File:Furuhashi Hironoshin.JPG|thumb|[[Furuhashi Hironoshin]], past president of the [[Japanese Olympic Committee|JOC]]]]
Five months after the city was selected, the [[Nagano Olympic Organizing Committee]] (NAOC) was created. [[Eishiro Saito]], Chairman of [[Japan Business Federation]] (Keidanren) was selected as president of the committee. There were four Vice Presidents: [[Goro Yoshimura]], the Governor of Nagano Prefecture; [[Hironoshin Furuhashi]], president of the [[Japanese Olympic Committee]]; [[Yoshiaki Tsutsumi]], the president of the Ski Association of Japan; and [[Tasuku Tsukada]], the Mayor of Nagano City.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=43}}</ref> In addition, the Vice Minister of the [[Ministry of Home Affairs (Japan)|Ministry of Home Affairs]], Tadashi Tsuda, served as director-general.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=43}}</ref> Tsuda was replaced by [[Makoto Kobayashi (Olympics)|Makoto Kobayashi]] in 1993.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=43}}</ref>

The organizing committee recognized three goals for the games, which they referred to as "Games from the Heart": promote youth participation, coexistence with nature, create a festival with peace and friendship at its centre.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=11}}</ref> To realize the first goal, a camp bringing together 217 young people from 51 countries was created, along with the program of "One school, one country" in Nagano Prefecture.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=11}}</ref> This program organized cultural exchanges with other countries. In addition, more than 100,000 tickets were reserved for children.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=11}}</ref> For the second point, the organizers attempted to minimize the impact on their nature and the local ecosystem.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=11}}</ref> Regarding the third point, an international truce organized by the [[United Nations]] in 1997 was adopted during the games.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=12}}</ref>
{{Blockquote
 |style = letterhead
 |title =
 |text = ''The Nagano Olympics Games are a link to the 21st century, inspiring our search for wisdom for the new ear, respect for the beauty and bounty of nature, furtherance of peace and goodwill. Friends worldwide are welcome to share, in the spirit of competition and fair play, the joys and glory of the XVIII Olympic Winter Games.''<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=30}}</ref>
 |source =
}}

In June 1998, four months after the Games, the NAOC presented a donation of US$1 million to the [[Olympic Museum]] in [[Lausanne]]. This value come of the revenue of tickets sales and another actions from the committee.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=61}}</ref> In October of the same year, NAOC also donated the 3-D high vision theater and some structures that were used in Nagano Olympic Villages to the Olympic Museum.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=61}}</ref>

In February 1999, one year after the Games, the IOC awarded the Nagano the [[Olympic Cup]], and presented the city a replica of the sculpture of stylized athletes raising the [[Olympic Flag]] by the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] artist Nag Arnoldi.<ref group="b">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999b|p=341}}</ref>

===Economic aspects===
[[File:M-Wave northeast corner winter.jpg|thumb|[[M-Wave]]]]
The costs of construction and of the land of the Olympic venues totaled ¥106.6 billion,<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=185}}</ref> approximately 914 million [[United States dollar|US dollars]]. Of this, the [[Government of Japan|Japanese national government]] spent ¥51.1 billion, the [[Nagano Prefecture|Nagano prefectural government]] spent ¥29.6 billion, and the cities and towns of Nagano, ¥23.4 billion; [[Hakuba]], ¥1 billion; and [[Nozawa Onsen Snow Resort|Nozawa Onsen]], ¥1.1 billion; shared the remaining ¥25.5 billion.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=185}}</ref> The most expensive venue was impressive [[M-Wave]], the indoor rink which hosted the long-track speed skating events. It cost near ¥34.8 billion.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=185}}</ref> The two ice hockey venues, [[Big Hat]] and [[Aqua Wing Arena]] cost ¥19.1 and ¥9.1 billion respectively.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=185}}</ref> The [[White Ring (arena)]], which hosted figure skating and short-track speed skating cost ¥14.2 billion, the [[Spiral (bobsleigh, luge, and skeleton)|Spiral]], which hosted bobsleigh, luge, and skeleton, cost ¥10.1 billion.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=185}}</ref> Another ¥8.6 billion was spent on the [[Hakuba Ski Jumping Stadium]], ¥7 billion for [[Snow Harp]] – the cross-country skiing venue, and ¥3 billion for the biathlon venue at [[Nozawa Onsen Snow Resort]].<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=185}}</ref>

The organizing committee financed all costs, totaling ¥113.9 billion.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=59}}</ref> It spent ¥99.4 billion for operational expenses, ¥21.6 billion for public relations, ¥20.7 billion for installations, ¥18.4 billion for telecommunications, ¥15.9 billion for running the competitions, and ¥14.4 billion for administration.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=59}}</ref> Television rights were worth ¥35.4 billion, and marketing earned ¥31.3 billion.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=59}}</ref> Ticket sales were worth ¥10.5 billion.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=59}}</ref> The total cost of the Nagano Games is estimated to have been US$15.25 billion (in 2015), of which the largest factor in the cost of the games was the extension of the [[shinkansen]] to Nagano. This compares, for example, with US$2.5 billion for the [[2002 Winter Olympics]], US$4.35 billion for the [[2006 Winter Olympics]], US$7.56 billion for the [[2010 Winter Olympics]], and US$51 billion for the [[2014 Winter Olympics]]<ref>{{Cite web|author=Baade, R.|author2=Matheson, V.|name-list-style=amp|url=http://web.holycross.edu/RePEc/hcx/HC1605-Matheson-Baade_Olympics.pdf|title=Going for the gold: The economics of the Olympics|language=en|access-date=19 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181216095023/http://web.holycross.edu/RePEc/hcx/HC1605-Matheson-Baade_Olympics.pdf|archive-date=16 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Transportation===
[[File:E2 J6 Asama Karuizawa 19980218.jpg|thumb|A [[Nagano Shinkansen]] [[E2 Series Shinkansen|E2 Series]] "J" set in February 1998]]
[[File:Ueda-Roman Bridge 1.jpg|right|200px|thumb|[[Jōshin-etsu Expressway]] in [[Ueda, Nagano]].]]
[[File:浅川ループライン.JPG|thumb|Asagawa Loop Line to [[Iizuna Kogen Ski Area]] built in preparations for the Games]]
[[Nagano (city)|Nagano]] is situated at the [[Japanese Alps]] area and receives large snowfalls every year. These combined to make transportation an important challenge for the organizing committee. In addition, the Olympic Village was a distance of 7 kilometers from the center of the city, and sporting events were spread over five surrounding cities. The complicating matters were that many of the venues had one single road in-out, which limited possibilities and led to traffic jams.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=234}}</ref>

To improve access to Nagano, the government decided to link the prefecture with the high-speed ''[[shinkansen]]'' train network. Called Nagano Shinkansen (now the [[Hokuriku Shinkansen]]), it was inaugurated five months before the start of the Games. This reduced by half the travel time between [[Tokyo]] and Nagano, to 79 minutes for 221 kilometers.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=240}}</ref> The length of the track between [[Takasaki Station]] and [[Nagano Station]] is 125.7&nbsp;km, which includes 63.4&nbsp;km of tunnels. The high speed train network carried 655,000 passengers during the Games.<ref group="b">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999b|p=309}}</ref>

Two highways, the [[Nagano Expressway]] and the [[Jōshin-etsu Expressway]], were also built in the Nagano region.<ref group="b">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999b|p=301}}</ref> In May 1993, the 75.8-kilometer section of the Nagano Expressway was completed, and in October 1997, the 111.4 kilometer section of the Jōshin-etsu Expressway was completed.<ref group="b">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999b|p=309}}</ref> In addition, another 114.9 kilometers of roads within [[Nagano Prefecture]] were improved.<ref name=transportation/>

Transportation systems for the Games ran for 33 days, from the opening of the Athletes Village until 3 days after the Paralympics closing ceremony, when the Village was  decommissioned from its functions. Approximately 64% of the athletes arrived between 1 and 6 February, and 74% left Nagano between 22 and 25 February.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=237}}</ref> Logistical operations were directed from the operational centre situated at the Organizing Committee headquarters. Two regional logistical minor hubs were created in [[Hakuba]] and [[Yamanouchi, Nagano|Yamanouchi]], as well as a traffic center for buses and cars in [[Karuizawa]].<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=235}}</ref> Originally it was expected that both athletes and media delegations would arrive entirely via [[Narita International Airport]], which did not happen given the high demand for plane tickets. So some delegations had to arrive via [[Kansai International Airport]] and [[Chubu Centrair International Airport]] in [[Nagoya]]<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=238}}</ref> The members of the IOC and the delegations who arrived in Narita traveled to Nagano via [[Shinkansen]].<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=236}}</ref>
To improve transportation for spectators, the number and hours of local trains were extended.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=236}}</ref> During the heaviest traffic days, more cars and buses were put in service and up to 68 parking areas, for 8,000 vehicles were at available for various Olympic delegations, and another 17 parking areas for 23,000 cars for spectators. Approximately 1,200 vehicles had navigation systems which transmitted their locations in a GPS system.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=248}}</ref>

As one of the principal aims of the Games was to respect nature, many vehicles were considered ecological or semi-ecological. In addition, there were more than 100 electric vehicles, hybrid mini-buses and other environmentally-friendly vehicles.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=247}}</ref>

===Marketing===
[[File:Stylized Nagao Olympics manhole cover with tactile paving.jpg|thumb|Stylized manhole cover displaying the Nagano Olympics emblem, with [[tactile paving]]]]
The [[emblem]] of the 1998 Winter Olympics consisted of a stylized snow flower with each petal representing an athlete participating in a winter sport. The figure could also represent a [[snowflake]], or a mountain flower, which refers to the importance of the natural environment to the city of Nagano. Similarly, [[Tokyo]] used [[cherry blossoms]] in its logo for its candidature for the [[2020 Summer Olympics]].

[[Landor Associates]] conceived the official mascots that were used by the communication team for the Games. They consisted of four owlets, [[Sukki, Nokki, Lekki and Tsukki]], also called ''Snowlets''. The names were chosen from more than 47,000 suggestions. Four represents the number of years between each Olympic Games, and also represent the [[four elements]], fire, air, earth, and water.

The official poster for the Games was designed by the [[graphic designer]] Masuteru Aoba presented a [[thrush (bird)|thrush]] perched on ski poles with light in the background shining on snow-capped mountain peaks. Here, as with the emblem and the mascots, the importance of the natural environment in these Olympic Games and a desire to create harmony between athletes and the natural surroundings are shown. In addition to the official poster, a separate poster was created for the opening ceremony.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|pp=110–111}}</ref> Marketing for the games cost the organizing committee 5.9 billion yen.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=59}}</ref>

These Olympic Games were sponsored by 11 worldwide partners, 8 gold partners, and 18 official supports and suppliers. Marketing revenues for sponsoring or for the rights to use the emblems and mascots of the Games totaled 31.3 billion yen.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|pp=68–77}}</ref>

====Mascots====
{{Main|Sukki, Nokki, Lekki and Tsukki}}
Sukki, Nokki, Lekki and Tsukki, also known as the Snowlets, are the 1998 Winter Olympic mascots and are four snowy owls. They represent respectively fire (Sukki), air (Nokki), earth (Lekki) and water (Tsukki) and together they represent the four major islands of Japan.

====Sponsors of the 1998 Winter Olympics====
The development of Rights Packages were based on International Olympic Committee policy of offering exclusive rights to a limited number of companies, with one company allowed to purchase the rights for any single product or service category, and these were based on previous Games, with adaptations for the local market.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=72}}</ref> Sponsors were permitted to use the emblem and mascots as long as consent was obtained from the International Olympic Committee, [[Japanese Olympic Committee]], and the NAOC.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=72}}</ref> Hospitality packages for sponsors included priority for accommodations, tickets, and transportation services.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=73}}</ref> The Sponsor Hospitality Village, next to the [[Nagano Olympic Stadium]], welcomed 32,000 guests.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=73}}</ref>

To promote awareness of the sponsors, advertising was done in various media from 1995, and on banners and buses immediately before the games.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=73}}</ref> [[Dick Pound]] noted, during the Games, the excellence of the marketing program, citing the "''perfect example of how the private and public sectors can work together''".<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=73}}</ref>

The Games had 11 Worldwide Olympic Partners, eight Gold Sponsors and 18 Official Supporters and Suppliers.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=75}}</ref>

'''Worldwide Olympic Partners:'''
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[The Coca-Cola Company]]
* [[IBM]]
* [[John Hancock Financial]]
* [[Kodak]]
* [[McDonald's]]
* [[Panasonic]]
* [[Samsung Electronics]]
* [[Time Inc.]]
* [[United Parcel Service]]
* [[Visa Inc.]]
* [[Xerox]] ([[Fuji Xerox]])
{{div col end}}

'''Gold Sponsors:'''
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[Amway]]
* Hachijuni Bank
* [[KDDI]]
* [[Kirin Company]]
* [[Mizuno Corporation]]
* [[Nippon Telegraph and Telephone]]
* [[Seiko]]
* [[Toyota]]
{{div col end}}

'''Official Supporters and Suppliers:'''
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[Bridgestone]]
* [[Brother Industries]]
* [[:ja:コロナ (暖房器具)|Corona Corp.]]
* Hanamaruki Foods
* [[Hitachi Zosen Corporation]]
* [[Idemitsu Kosan]]
* [[Japan Agricultural Cooperatives]]
* [[Japan Airlines]]
* KOKUYO
* MAYEKAWA
* Marudai Foods
* [[Oji Paper Company]]
* Pia Corporation
* Sankosya Corporation
* [[Snow Brand Milk Products]]
* [[Tokio Marine]]
* [[Tokyo Gas]]
* [[Yamazaki Baking]]
{{div col end}}

===Ticket sales===
From 7 February 1997, the organizing committee put up for sale 1,286,000 tickets for the various competitions and ceremonies. The number of tickets sold was 1,149,615, which represented 89.4% of available tickets. Including people connected to the Games, the total number of spectators was 1,275,529. This number was slightly higher than in 1994 as a result of the greater availability of tickets. This reflected the total capacity of the arenas used, which were mostly larger than those used four years earlier but slightly lower than the [[1988 Winter Olympics]] in [[Calgary]]. Tickets sales were a success in the domestic market, as the Japanese people finished the process of purchase with a reservation list of 6 million. For the most popular events, a lottery system was used.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|pp=81–82}}</ref> In total, ticket sales raised 10.5 billion yen for the organizing committee.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|p=59}}</ref>

The [[Ice hockey at the 1998 Winter Olympics|ice hockey]] matches represented 295,802 tickets sold, 26% of the total. Tickets sold for [[Alpine skiing at the 1998 Winter Olympics|alpine skiing]] totaled 166,092; for [[Ski jumping at the 1998 Winter Olympics|ski jumping]], 96,000, and [[Speed skating at the 1998 Winter Olympics|speed skating]], 93,000. For multiple sports, ski jumping, [[Nordic combined at the 1998 Winter Olympics|Nordic combined]], [[Freestyle skiing at the 1998 Winter Olympics|freestyle skiing]], all three skating disciplines, [[Bobsleigh at the 1998 Winter Olympics|bobsleigh]], and [[Curling at the 1998 Winter Olympics|curling]], as well as the ceremonies, all tickets were sold. By contrast, due the local demands and low interest only 56.6% of the 146,000 available tickets for [[Cross-country skiing at the 1998 Winter Olympics|cross-country skiing]] were sold.<ref group="a">{{harvsp|Hanazawa|1999a|pp=81–82}}</ref>

===Cost and cost overrun===
''The Oxford Olympics Study'' established the outturn cost of the Nagano 1998 Winter Olympics at US$2.2 billion in 2015-dollars and cost overrun at 56% in real terms.<ref>{{Cite book|ssrn=2804554|title=The Oxford Olympics Study 2016: Cost and Cost Overrun at the Games|last1=Flyvbjerg|first1=Bent|last2=Stewart|first2=Allison|last3=Budzier|first3=Alexander|publisher=Saïd Business School Working Papers (Oxford: University of Oxford)|year=2016|location=Oxford|pages=9–13}}</ref> This includes sports-related costs only, that is, (i) ''operational costs'' incurred by the organizing committee for the purpose of staging the Games, e.g., expenditures for technology, transportation, workforce, administration, security, catering, ceremonies, and medical services, and (ii) ''direct capital costs'' incurred by the host city and country or private investors to build, e.g., the competition venues, the Olympic village, international broadcast center, and media and press center, which are required to host the Games. Indirect capital costs are ''not'' included, such as for road, rail, or airport infrastructure, or for hotel upgrades or other business investment incurred in preparation for the Games but not directly related to staging the Games. The cost and cost overrun for Nagano 1998 compares with costs of US$2.5 billion and a cost overrun of 13% for Vancouver 2010, and costs of US$51<ref name="The Guardian">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/blog/2013/oct/09/sochi-2014-olympics-money-corruption |title=Sochi 2014: the costliest Olympics yet but where has all the money gone? |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=12 February 2014}}</ref> billion and a cost overrun of 289% for Sochi 2014, the latter being the most costly Olympics to date. Average cost for Winter Games since 1960 is US$3.1 billion, average cost overrun is 142%.