Editing Łódź (section)

==History==
{{main|History of Łódź}}
{{see also|Timeline of Łódź}}

===Early beginnings (1332–1815)===
[[File:Lodz1577.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.7|{{lang|la|Sigillum oppidi Lodzia}} – seal dating back to 1577]]

Łódź first appears in a 1332 written record issued by [[Władysław the Hunchback]], [[Duchy of Łęczyca|Duke of Łęczyca]], which transferred the village of Łodzia to the [[Bishopric of Włocławek]].{{sfn|Strumiłło|2015|p=1}} The document enumerated the privileges of its inhabitants, notably the right to [[grazing|graze]] land, establish [[pasture]]s and engage in [[Wood industry|logging]].{{sfn|Brunell|2005|p=161}} In 1423, [[King of Poland]] [[Władysław II Jagiełło]] officially granted town rights to the village under [[Magdeburg Law]].{{sfn|Lerski|1996|p=324}} For centuries, it remained a small remote settlement situated among woodlands and [[marsh]]es, which was privately held by the [[Kuyavia]]n bishops.{{sfn|Podgarbi|1990|p=33}} It was administratively located in the Brzeziny County in the [[Łęczyca Voivodeship]] in the [[Greater Poland Province, Crown of the Kingdom of Poland|Greater Poland Province]] of the Kingdom of Poland.<ref>{{cite book|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Atlas historyczny Polski. Województwo sieradzkie i województwo łęczyckie w drugiej połowie XVI wieku. Część I. Mapy, plany|year=1998|language=pl|location=Warszawa|publisher=Instytut Historii [[Polish Academy of Sciences|Polskiej Akademii Nauk]]|page=3}}</ref> The economy was predominantly driven by [[agriculture]] and farming until the 19th century.{{sfn|Brunet-Jailly|2017|p=178}} The earliest two versions of the [[coat of arms]] appeared on [[seal (emblem)|seal emblems]] in 1535 and 1577, with the latter illustrating a boat-like vessel and a turned [[oar]].{{sfn|Puś|1987|p=10}}

With the [[Second Partition of Poland]] in 1793, Łódź was annexed by [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]].{{sfn|Muzeum Archeologiczne i Etnograficzne w Łodzi|1976|p=48}} In 1798, the Kuyavian bishops' ownership over the region was formally revoked during the [[Secularization (church property)|secularisation of church property]].{{sfn|Rosset|1962|p=5}} The town, governed by a [[burgomaster]] ({{lang|pl|burmistrz}}), at the time had only 190 residents, 44 occupied dwellings, a church and a prison.{{sfn|Brunell|2005|p=161}} In 1806, Łódź was incorporated into the Napoleonic [[Duchy of Warsaw]].{{sfn|Muzeum Archeologiczne i Etnograficzne w Łodzi|1976|p=48}} In the aftermath of the 1815 [[Congress of Vienna]], the duchy was dissolved and the town became part of the [[Congress Kingdom of Poland]], a [[client state]] of the [[Russian Empire]].{{sfn|Malone|2007|p=210}}

===Partitions and development (1815–1918)===
[[File:Lodz 1823 Plan Osady Sukienniczej Nowe Miasto.jpg|thumb|left|One of the first city plans, illustrating the [[Land lot|housing allotments]] and new development around [[Piotrkowska Street]], 1823]]

In 1820, the government of the Congress Kingdom designated Łódź and its rural surroundings for [[Planned community|centrally planned]] industrial development.{{sfn|Larkham|Conzen|2014|p=153}} [[Rajmund Rembieliński]], head of the [[Administrative Council#Congress Poland|Administrative Council]] and prefect of [[Masovia]], became the president of a commission that subdivided the works two major phases; the first (1821–23) comprised the creation of a new city centre with an octagonal square (contemporary {{lang|pl|[[Liberty Square, Łódź|plac Wolności]]}}; Liberty Square) and arranged [[Land lot|housing allotments]] on [[greenfield land]] situated south of the old marketplace; the second stage (1824–28) involved the establishment of [[cotton mill]] colonies and a linear street system along with an arterial north–south thoroughfare, [[Piotrkowska Street|Piotrkowska]].{{sfn|Larkham|Conzen|2014|p=153}} Many of the early dwellings were timber cottages built for housing [[weaving|weavers]] ({{lang|pl|domy tkaczy}}).{{sfn|Larkham|Conzen|2014|pp=153–154}}

During this time, a sizeable number of [[Germans|German]] craftsmen settled in the city,{{sfn|Larkham|Conzen|2014|pp=153–154}} encouraged by exemptions from tax obligations.{{sfn|Susquehanna University|1975|p=51}} Their settlement in Poland was encouraged by renowned philosopher and statesman [[Stanisław Staszic]], who acted as the director of the Department of Trade, Crafts and Industry.{{sfn|Reddaway|Penson|Halecki|2016|p=279}}

[[File:Bronisław Wilkoszewski – Fabryka Tow. Ak. Poznańskiego.jpg|thumb|left|[[Izrael Poznański]]'s industrial complex ({{lang|pl|[[Manufaktura]]}}) pictured in 1895]]

In 1851, the Imperial authorities abolished a [[customs]] barrier which was imposed on Congress Poland following the failed [[November Uprising]] (1830–1831).{{sfn|Brand|Thomas|2013|p=149}} The suppression of tariffs allowed the city to freely export its goods to Russia, where the demand for textiles was high.{{sfn|Brand|Thomas|2013|p=149}} Poland's first [[steam engine|steam-powered]] loom commenced operations at Ludwik Geyer's [[White Factory]] in 1839.{{sfn|Leslie|1983|p=44}} During the first weeks of the [[January Uprising]] (1863–1864), a unit of 300 Polish insurgents entered the city without resistance and seized weapons, and later on, there were also clashes between Polish insurgents and Russian troops in the city.{{sfn|Zieliński|1913|pp=22, 35, 47}} In 1864, the inhabitants of adjacent villages were permitted to settle in Łódź [[abolition of serfdom in Poland|without restrictions]].{{sfn|Liszewski|Young|1997|p=16}} The development of railways in the region was also instrumental in expanding the textile industry; in 1865 the [[Łódź–Koluszki railway|Łódź–Koluszki line]], a branch of the [[Warsaw–Vienna railway]], was opened, thus providing a train connection to larger markets.{{sfn|Liszewski|Young|1997|pp=16–17}} In 1867, the city was incorporated into the [[Piotrków Governorate]], a local province.{{sfn|University of Łódź|1979|pp=22–23}}

The infrastructure and edifices of Łódź were built at the expense of industrialists and [[business magnate]]s, chiefly [[Karl Wilhelm Scheibler]] and [[Izrael Poznański]], who sponsored schools, hospitals, orphanages, and [[Place of worship|places of worship]].{{sfn|van Pelt|2015|p=12}} From 1872 to 1892, Poznański established a major [[Manufaktura|textile manufactory]] composed of twelve factories, power plants, worker [[tenements]], a private fire station, and a large [[Izrael Poznański Palace|eclectic palace]].{{sfn|Charles|2015|p=28}} By the end of the century, Scheibler's {{lang|pl|[[Księży Młyn (Łódź)|Księży Młyn]]|italic=no}} became one of Europe's largest industrial complexes, employing 5,000 workers within a single facility.{{sfn|Wakeman|2020}} The years 1870–1890 saw the most intense industrialisation,{{sfn|Wandycz|2001|p=161}} which was marked by social inequalities and dire working conditions.{{sfn|Blanc|2021|p=33}} Łódź soon became a notable centre of the [[socialism|socialist]] movement and the so-called [[Łódź rebellion]]<sup>([[:pl:Bunt łódzki|pl]])</sup> in May 1892 was quelled by a military intervention.{{sfn|Blanc|2021|p=33}}

[[File:Archiwum Włodzimierza Pfeiffera PL 39 596 321.png|thumb|right|The [[Łódź Cathedral|Archcathedral of St. Stanislaus Kostka]], completed in 1912, is one of Poland's tallest churches.]]

The turn of the 20th century coincided with cultural and technological progress; in 1899, the first stationary [[Movie theater|cinema]] in Poland ({{lang|pl|Gabinet Iluzji}}) was opened in Łódź.{{sfn|Cudny|2016|p=127}} In the same year, [[Józef Piłsudski]], the future [[Marshal of Poland]], settled in the city and began printing the ''[[Robotnik (1894–1939)|Robotnik]]'' (The Worker; p.&nbsp;1894–1939), an [[Polish underground press|underground newspaper]] published by the [[Polish Socialist Party]].{{sfn|Zimmerman|2022|p=138}} During the [[Łódź insurrection|June Days]] (1905), approximately 100,000 unemployed labourers went on a mass strike, barricaded the streets and clashed with troops.{{sfn|Toporowski|2013|pp=9–10}} Officially, 151 demonstrators were killed and thousands were wounded.{{sfn|Toporowski|2013|p=10}} In 1912, the [[Łódź Cathedral|Archcathedral of St. Stanislaus Kostka]] was completed and its tower at {{convert|104|m|ft}} is one of the tallest in Poland.{{sfn|Stefański|2003|p=102}}{{sfn|Bujak|2007|p=292}}

Despite the impending crisis preceding [[World War I]], Łódź grew exponentially and was one of the world's most densely populated industrial cities, with a population density of {{convert|13200|PD/km2|PD/sqmi}} by 1914.{{sfn|Liszewski|Young|1997|p=117}} In the aftermath of the [[Battle of Łódź (1914)|Battle of Łódź]] (1914), the city came under [[German Empire|Imperial German]] occupation on 6 December.{{sfn|DiNardo|2010|p=14}} With [[History of Poland (1918–39)|Polish independence]] restored in November 1918, the local population disarmed the [[Imperial German army|German army]].{{sfn|Biskupski|2012|p=28}} Subsequently, the textile industry of Łódź stalled and its population briefly decreased as ethnic Germans left the city.{{sfn|Berend|2013|p=195}}

===Restored Poland (1918–1939)===
[[File:Archiwum Włodzimierza Pfeiffera PL 39 596 328.png|thumb|{{lang|pl|[[Liberty Square, Łódź|Plac Wolności]]}} (Liberty Square) with the [[Tadeusz Kościuszko]] Monument and Holy Spirit Church in 1930]]

Despite its large population and economic output, Łódź did not serve as the seat of its province until the 20th century.{{sfn|University of Łódź|1979|p=23}} Following the establishment of the [[Second Polish Republic]], it became the capital of the [[Łódź Voivodeship]] in 1919.{{sfn|Czerny|2006|p=57}} The early [[interwar period]] was characterised by considerable economic hardship and industrial stagnation.{{sfn|Roszkowski|2015|p=207}} The [[Great Depression]] and the [[German–Polish customs war]] closed western markets to Polish textiles while the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|Bolshevik Revolution]] and the [[Russian Civil War|Civil War]] in Russia put an end to the most profitable trade with the East.{{sfn|Roszkowski|2015|p=207}}{{sfn|Czerny|2006|p=57}}

Because of rapid and, consequently, chaotic development in the previous century, Łódź did not possess the adequate infrastructure and living standards for its inhabitants.{{sfn|Feitelson|2017|p=118}} Pollution was acute, sanitary conditions were poor and the authorities did not invest in a [[sewage treatment]] system until the 1920s.{{sfn|Feitelson|2017|pp=118–119}}{{sfn|Karamouz|2021|p=386}} From 1918 to 1939, many cultural, educational and scientific institutions were created, including elementary schools, museums, art galleries and [[Public library|public libraries]] which prior to the First World War did not exist.{{sfn|Cudny|2016|pp=126–127}} Łódź also began developing an [[entertainment]] scene, with 34 movie theatres opened by 1939.{{sfn|Cudny|2016|pp=126–127}} On 13 September 1925, the city's first airport, [[Łódź Władysław Reymont Airport|Lublinek]], commenced operations.{{sfn|Badziak|Łapa|2009|p=160}} In 1930, the first [[radio]] transmission from a newly founded broadcasting station took place.{{sfn|Wojalski|1992}}

The ideological orientation of Łódź was strongly [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]] and the city was a notable centre of socialist, [[Communism|communist]] and [[Bundism|bundist]] activity in Polish politics during the interbellum.{{sfn|Brunell|2005|pp=179–180}}

===Second World War (1939–1945)===
{{see also|Battle of Łódź (1939)| Łódź Ghetto}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-133-0703-20, Polen, Ghetto Litzmannstadt, Brücke.jpg|thumb|right|[[Łódź Ghetto]] ({{lang|de|Ghetto Litzmannstadt}}), was the second-largest [[Nazi ghettos|ghetto]] in all of [[German-occupied Europe]].]]

During the [[invasion of Poland]] in September 1939, the Polish forces of General [[Juliusz Rómmel]]'s [[Łódź Army|Army Łódź]] defended the city against the German assault by forming a line of resistance between [[Sieradz]] and [[Piotrków Trybunalski]].{{sfn|Forczyk|2019|p=212}} The attack was conducted by the [[8th Army (Wehrmacht)|8th Army]] of [[Johannes Blaskowitz]], who encircled the city with the [[X Army Corps (Wehrmacht)|X Army Corps]].{{sfn|Forczyk|2019|p=260}} After fierce resistance, a Polish delegation surrendered to the Germans on 8 September, and the first {{lang|de|[[Wehrmacht]]|italic=no}} troops entered in the early hours of 9 September.{{sfn|Forczyk|2019|pp=260–261}} The German {{lang|de|[[Einsatzgruppen|Einsatzgruppe III]]}} paramilitary death squad entered the city on 12 September.{{sfn|Wardzyńska|2009a|p=114}} [[Arthur Greiser]] incorporated Łódź into a new administrative subdivision of Nazi Germany called {{lang|de|[[Reichsgau Wartheland]]}} on 9 November 1939,{{sfn|Crowe|2021|p=168}} and on 11 April 1940 the city was renamed to {{lang|de|Litzmannstadt}} after German general and [[NSDAP]] member [[Karl Litzmann]].{{sfn|von Plato|Leh|Thonfeld|2010|p=87}}

The city became subjected to immediate [[Germanisation in Poland (1939–1945)|Germanisation]], with Polish and Jewish establishments closed, and [[Polish language|Polish-language]] press banned.{{sfn|von Plato|Leh|Thonfeld|2010|pp=87–88}} Low-wage [[forced labour]] was imposed on the city's inhabitants aged 16 to 60; many were subsequently deported to Germany.{{sfn|von Plato|Leh|Thonfeld|2010|p=88}} As part of the {{lang|de|[[Intelligenzaktion]]}}, Polish intellectuals from the city and region were imprisoned at [[Radogoszcz prison|Radogoszcz]] and then either sent to [[Nazi concentration camps|concentration camps]] or murdered in the forests of Łagiewniki and the village of [[Lućmierz-Las]].{{sfn|Wardzyńska|2009a|pp=203–205}} Polish children were [[kidnapping of ethnic Polish children by Nazi Germany|forcibly taken from their parents]],{{sfn|Ledniowski|Gola|2020|p=149}} and from 1942 to 1945 the German ''[[Sicherheitspolizei]]'' operated a camp for kidnapped Polish children from various regions in Łódź.{{sfn|Ledniowski|Gola|2020|p=147}}

The German authorities established the [[Ghetto Litzmannstadt|Łódź Ghetto]] ({{lang|de|Ghetto Litzmannstadt}}) in the city and populated it with more than 200,000 Jews from the region, who were systematically sent to [[Nazi extermination camp|German extermination camps]].{{sfn|Trunk|Shapiro|2006|pp=XI, 9–13}} It was the second-largest ghetto in [[German-occupied Europe|occupied Europe]],{{sfn|Trunk|Shapiro|2006|p=XXXIII}} and the last major ghetto to be liquidated, in August 1944.{{sfn|Wieviorka|2006|pp=7–8}} The [[Polish resistance movement in World War II|Polish resistance movement]] ({{lang|pl|[[Żegota]]}}) operated in the city and aided the Jewish people throughout its existence.{{sfn|Datner|1968|p=69}} However, only 877 Jews were still alive by 1945.{{sfn|Trunk|Shapiro|2006|p=XI}} Of the 223,000 Jews in Łódź before the invasion, 10,000 survived [[the Holocaust]] in other places.{{sfn|Peck|1997}} The Germans also created camps for [[Gentile|non-Jews]], including the [[Romani people]] deported from abroad, who were ultimately [[Romani genocide|murdered]] at [[Chełmno extermination camp|Chełmno]],{{sfn|Trunk|Shapiro|2006|p=L}} as well as a penal [[forced labour under German rule during World War II|forced labour]] camp,{{sfn|Wardzyńska|2009b|p=30}} four transit camps for Poles [[expulsion of Poles by Nazi Germany|expelled]] from the city and region, and a [[racial policy of Nazi Germany|racial research]] camp.{{sfn|Ledniowski|Gola|2020|pp=148–149}}

===Post World War II (1945–1989)===
[[File:SMD Lodz 2023 aerial.jpg|thumb|left|Śródmieście Residential District - built in 1975–1982, one of many modernist housing estates from the times of the Polish People's Republic]]
Following liberation by Soviet forces on 19 January 1945, and the end of the [[World War II]], Łódź informally and temporarily took over the functions of Poland's capital, and most of the government and country administration resided in the city prior to the reconstruction of [[Warsaw]].{{sfn|Cudny|Kunc|2021}}

Łódź also experienced an influx of refugees from [[Kresy]]. Many migrated into the suburbs and occupied the empty properties.{{sfn|Cudny|Kunc|2021}} Under the [[Polish People's Republic]], the city's industry and private companies were subject to [[nationalisation]].{{sfn|Cudny|Kunc|2021}} On 24 May 1945, the [[University of Łódź]] was inaugurated.{{sfn|Werra|Woźny|2018|p=481}} On 8 March 1948, the [[Łódź Film School|National Film School]] was opened, later becoming Poland's primary academy of drama and cinema.{{sfn|Dixon|2015|p=207}}

The spatial and [[urban planning]] after World War II was conducted in accordance with the [[Athens Charter]], where the population from the old core was relocated into new [[residential area]]s.{{sfn|Müller|2005|p=172}} However, as a result, the inner-city and historical areas fell in significance and degenerated into a [[slum]].{{sfn|Müller|2005|p=172}} A number of extensive [[panel building|panel]] block housing estates were constructed, including [[Retkinia]], Teofilów, Widzew, Radogoszcz, and Chojny. These block housing estates were constructed between 1960 and 1990, covering an area of almost {{convert|30|km2|sqmi}} and accommodating a large part of the populace.{{sfn|Kłysik|1998|p=175}}

In mid-1981 Łódź became famous for its massive [[summer 1981 hunger demonstrations in Poland|hunger demonstration of local mothers and their children]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Polish Revolution: Solidarity |first=Timothy Garton |last=Ash |date=1 January 1999 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=0300095686 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1981/07/28/world/polish-minister-and-union-reach-compromise-on-meat-ration-cut.html?sec=health | title=Polish Minister and Union Reach Compromise on Meat Ration Cut | author1=James M. Markham | work=The New York Times | date=1981-07-28 | access-date=13 August 2022 | archive-date=13 May 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220513142104/https://www.nytimes.com/1981/07/28/world/polish-minister-and-union-reach-compromise-on-meat-ration-cut.html?sec=health | url-status=live }}</ref>

===Contemporary history (1990–present)===
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| perrow            = 2
| total_width       = 320
| image1            = Włókiennicza Street in Łódź (April 2024) (cropped).jpg
| alt1              = Włókiennicza Street
| caption1          = Włókiennicza Street
| image2            = Ulica Moniuszki (2024) 2 (cropped).jpg
| alt2              = Moniuszki Street
| caption2          = Moniuszki Street
| image3            = Aleja 1 maja Łodź 2020.jpg
| alt3              = 1 Maja Avenue
| caption3          = [[1 Maja Avenue, Łódź|1 Maja Avenue]]
| image4            = Ulica 6 Sierpnia w Łodzi (1) (cropped).jpg
| alt4              = 6 Sierpnia Street
| caption4          = 6 Sierpnia Street
| footer            = In the second decade of the 21st century, a program for the revitalization of streets and restrictions on car traffic in the city center of Łódź was implemented. Since 2014, several dozen [[woonerf]]s (streets prioritizing pedestrians and cyclists) have been created in the city.<ref name="woonerf">{{Cite web |url=https://lodz.pl/artykul/woonerfy-w-lodzi-powstalo-ich-kilkadziesiat-a-w-planach-kolejne-zdjecia-54230/|title=Woonerfy w Łodzi. Powstało ich kilkadziesiąt, a w planach kolejne.}}</ref>
}}

After 1989 the [[textile industry]] in Łódź collapsed and the city suffered from social and economic decline. The city's [[industrial heritage]] and examples of [[Art Nouveau in Poland|Polish Art Nouveau]] became an early tourist attraction. In the 2000s the city's main street, the Piotrkowska Street, was revitalized, providing space for shops and restaurants. By 2011 the city hosted around 60 festivals per year.<ref>{{Cite book|title= Routledge Handbook of Tourism Cities | editor1=Alastair M. Morrison | editor2= J. Andres Coca-Stefaniak |publisher= Taylor & Francis |year=2020 |isbn=9780429534805 | pages=}}</ref>

The local government's efforts to transform the former industrial city into a thriving urban environment and tourist destination formed the basis for the city's failed bid to organise the 2022 International EXPO exhibition on the subject of urban renewal.<ref>[http://thenews.pl/1/12/Artykul/335369,Poland-to-invest-in-Lodz-despite-failed-bid-for-Expo-2022 "Poland to invest in Łódź despite failed bid for Expo 2022."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180718234618/http://thenews.pl/1/12/Artykul/335369,Poland-to-invest-in-Lodz-despite-failed-bid-for-Expo-2022 |date=18 July 2018 }} ''Radio Poland''. 16 November 2017. Retrieved 16 November 2017</ref>