Editing Whale (section)

==Relationship with humans==
===Whaling===
{{Main|Whaling|History of whaling}}

[[File:Whale Fishing Fac simile of a Woodcut in the Cosmographie Universelle of Thevet in folio Paris 1574 crop.png|thumb|Whale Fishing: Woodcut by Thevet, Paris, 1574]]
[[File:Walvisvangst bij de kust van Spitsbergen - Dutch whalers near Spitsbergen (Abraham Storck, 1690).jpg|thumb|Dutch whalers near [[Spitsbergen]], their most successful port. ''[[Abraham Storck]], 1690'']]

[[Whaling]] by humans has existed since the [[Stone Age]]. Ancient whalers used [[harpoon]]s to spear the bigger animals from boats out at sea.{{sfn|BBC News|2004}} People from Norway and Japan started hunting whales around 2000 B.C.{{sfn|Marrero|Thornton|2011}} Whales are typically hunted for their [[whale meat|meat]] and blubber by aboriginal groups; they used baleen for baskets or roofing, and made tools and masks out of bones.{{sfn|Marrero|Thornton|2011}} The Inuit hunted whales in the Arctic Ocean.{{sfn|Marrero|Thornton|2011}} The [[History of Basque whaling|Basques]] started whaling as early as the 11th century, sailing as far as [[Newfoundland]] in the 16th century in search of [[right whales]].{{sfn|Ford|2015}}{{sfn|Proulx|1994|pp=260–286}} 18th- and 19th-century whalers hunted whales mainly for their [[whale oil|oil]], which was used as lamp fuel and a lubricant, [[baleen|baleen or whalebone]], which was used for items such as [[corset]]s and [[crinoline|skirt hoops]],{{sfn|Marrero|Thornton|2011}} and [[ambergris]], which was used as a fixative for perfumes. The most successful whaling nations at this time were the Netherlands, Japan, and the United States.{{sfn|New Bedford}}

Commercial whaling was historically important as an industry well throughout the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. Whaling was at that time a sizeable European industry with ships from Britain, France, Spain, Denmark, the Netherlands and Germany, sometimes collaborating to hunt whales in the Arctic, sometimes in competition leading even to war.{{sfn|Stonehouse|2007}} By the early 1790s, whalers, namely the Americans and Australians, focused efforts in the South Pacific where they mainly hunted sperm whales and right whales, with catches of up to 39,000 right whales by Americans alone.{{sfn|Ford|2015}}{{sfn|Tonnessen|1982}} By 1853, US profits reached US$11,000,000 (£6.5m), equivalent to US$348,000,000 (£230m) today, the most profitable year for the American whaling industry.{{sfn|PBS ''American Experience''}} Commonly exploited species included North Atlantic right whales, sperm whales, which were mainly hunted by Americans, bowhead whales, which were mainly hunted by the Dutch, common minke whales, blue whales, and grey whales. The scale of whale harvesting decreased substantially after 1982 when the [[International Whaling Commission]] (IWC) placed a moratorium which set a catch limit for each country, excluding aboriginal groups until 2004.{{sfn|Economist|2012}}

Current whaling nations are Norway, Iceland, and Japan, despite their joining to the [[International Whaling Commission|IWC]], as well as the aboriginal communities of Siberia, Alaska, and northern Canada.{{sfn|IFAW}} Subsistence hunters typically use whale products for themselves and depend on them for survival. National and international authorities have given special treatment to aboriginal hunters since their methods of hunting are seen as less destructive and wasteful. This distinction is being questioned as these aboriginal groups are using more modern weaponry and mechanized transport to hunt with, and are selling whale products in the marketplace. Some anthropologists argue that the term "subsistence" should also apply to these cash-based exchanges as long as they take place within local production and consumption.{{sfn|Klinowska|1991|p=13}}{{sfn|IWC "Aboriginal"}}{{sfn|Morseth|1997}} In 1946, the IWC placed a moratorium, limiting the annual whale catch. Since then, yearly profits for these "subsistence" hunters have been close to US$31 million (£20m) per year.{{sfn|Economist|2012}}

===Other threats===
{{further|Cetacean bycatch|Cetacean stranding|Marine mammals and sonar}}

Whales can also be threatened by humans more indirectly. They are unintentionally caught in fishing nets by commercial fisheries as [[bycatch]] and accidentally swallow fishing hooks. [[Gillnetting]] and [[Seine fishing|Seine netting]] is a significant cause of mortality in whales and other marine mammals.{{sfn|NOAA Fisheries|2014}} Species commonly entangled include beaked whales. Whales are also affected by [[marine pollution]]. High levels of [[Persistent organic pollutant|organic chemical]]s accumulate in these animals since they are high in the food chain. They have large reserves of blubber, more so for toothed whales as they are higher up the food chain than baleen whales. Lactating mothers can pass the toxins on to their young. These pollutants can cause [[gastrointestinal cancer]]s and greater vulnerability to infectious diseases.{{sfn|Metcalfe|2012}} They can also be poisoned by swallowing litter, such as plastic bags.{{sfn|Tsai|2015}} Advanced [[Marine mammals and sonar|military sonar harms whales]]. Sonar interferes with the basic biological functions of whales—such as feeding and mating—by impacting their ability to [[Animal echolocation|echolocate]]. Whales swim in response to sonar and sometimes experience [[decompression sickness]] due to rapid changes in depth. Mass [[Cetacean stranding|strandings]] have been triggered by sonar activity, resulting in injury or death.{{sfn|Stockton|2016}}{{sfn|Carrington|2013}}{{sfn|Scientific American|2009}}<ref>References prior to 2010, before a more definitive conclusion:
* {{harvnb|Rommel et al.|2006}}
* {{harvnb|Schrope|2003|p=106}}
* {{harvnb|Kirby|2003}}
* {{harvnb|Piantadosi et al.|2004}}
</ref> Whales are sometimes killed or injured during collisions with ships or boats. This is considered to be a significant threat to vulnerable whale populations such as the [[North Atlantic right whale]], whose total population numbers less than 500.{{sfn|WWF}} It is believed that up to two thirds of whale-ship collisions are not reported; either because they are not noticed in large ships, they occur at night or during conditions of adverse weather or some other reasons.<ref name=shipstrike/> From 2013 up to at least 2023 [[Chile]] has been the country in the world with most registered fatal whale-ship collisions.<ref name=shipstrike>{{Cite journal |title=High rate of ship strike to large whales off Chile: Historical data and proposed actions to reduce risk |journal=[[Marine Policy]] |year=2025|author=Toro, Frederick; Buchan Susannah J.; Alvarado-Rybak, Mario; Bedriñana-Romano, Luis; Garcia-Cegarra, Ana M., Hucke-Gaete, Rodrigo; Olavarria, Carlos; Sepúlveda, Maritza; Galletti-Vernazzani, Barbara; Sielfeld, Walter; Aguayo, Anelio; Capella, Juan; Perez-Alvarez, Maria José; Viddi, Francisco; Caceres, Benjamin; Gibbons, Jorge; Acevedo, Jorge; Guzman, Hector; Guerra, Jorge; Saez, Ricardo; Seguel, Mauricio; Fishbach, M. Michael|page=106577}}</ref>

===Conservation===
{{main|Whale conservation}}
[[File:Blue Whale population, Pengo.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|left|World population graph of [[blue whale]]s|alt=Diagram showing blue whale population trend through the 1900s]]

Whaling decreased substantially after 1946 when, in response to the steep decline in whale populations, the [[International Whaling Commission]] placed a moratorium which set a catch limit for each country; this excluded aboriginal groups up until 2004.{{sfn|New Bedford}}{{sfn|IWC "Aboriginal"}}{{sfn|IWC "Key Documents"}}{{sfn|IWC "Catch Limits"}} As of 2015, aboriginal communities are allowed to take 280 [[bowhead whales]] off Alaska and two from the western coast of Greenland, 620 grey whales off Washington state, three [[common minke whale]]s off the eastern coast of Greenland and 178 on their western coast, 10 [[fin whale]]s from the west coast of Greenland, nine [[humpback whale]]s from the west coast of Greenland and 20 off [[St. Vincent and the Grenadines]] each year.{{sfn|IWC "Catch Limits"}} Several species that were commercially exploited have rebounded in numbers; for example, grey whales may be as numerous as they were prior to harvesting, but the [[Gray whale#North Atlantic|North Atlantic population]] is [[functionally extinct]]. Conversely, the North Atlantic right whale was extirpated from much of its former range, which stretched across the North Atlantic, and only remains in small fragments along the coast of Canada, Greenland, and is considered functionally extinct along the European coastline.{{sfn|NOAA|2014}}

[[File:International Whaling Commission members.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|World map showing [[International Whaling Commission|International Whaling Commission (IWC)]] members in blue|alt=Map showing IWC members in blue]]
[[File:Rorqual 070.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|Whale Research Expeditions by Mingan Island Cetacean Study (MICS),<ref name="Mingan Island Cetacean Study (MICS)">{{cite web |title=Mingan Island Cetacean Study (MICS) |url=https://www.rorqual.com/english/home |access-date=11 August 2024|date=2024 |quote=The principal study areas include the Quebec North Shore in the Mingan Island / Anticosti region, the Gaspe Peninsula and St. Lawrence Estuary.}}</ref> [[Gulf of St. Lawrence#Marine mammals|Gulf of St. Lawrence]], [[Canada]]]]
The IWC has designated two whale sanctuaries: the [[Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary]], and the [[Indian Ocean Whale Sanctuary]]. The Southern Ocean whale sanctuary spans {{convert|30560860|km2|sqmi}} and envelopes Antarctica.{{sfn|MacKenzie|1994}} The Indian Ocean whale sanctuary takes up all of the Indian Ocean south of 55°S.{{sfn|IWC "Whale Sanctuaries"}} The IWC is a voluntary organization, with no treaty. Any nation may leave as they wish; the IWC cannot enforce any law it makes.

There are at least 86 cetacean species that are recognized by the [[International Whaling Commission]] Scientific Committee.{{sfn|Australian Report|2009|p={{pn|date=September 2023}}}} {{As of|2020}}, six are considered at risk, as they are ranked "[[Critically Endangered species|Critically Endangered]]" (North Atlantic right whale{{sfn|Cooke|2020}}), "[[Endangered species|Endangered]]" (blue whale,{{sfn|Cooke|2019}} North Pacific right whale,{{sfn|Cooke|Clapham|2018}} and sei whale,{{sfn|Cooke|2018a}}) and "[[Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]]" (fin whale{{sfn|Cooke|2018c}} and sperm whale{{sfn|Taylor et al.|2019}}). Twenty-one species have a "[[Data Deficient]]" ranking.{{sfn|Mead|2005|pp=723–743}} Species that live in polar habitats are vulnerable to the effects of recent and ongoing [[climate change]], particularly the time when pack ice forms and melts.{{sfn|Laidre|Stirling|Lowry|Wiig|2008|pp=97–125}}

===Whale watching===
{{main|Whale watching}}
[[File:Whale Watching.jpg|thumb|[[Whale watching]] off [[Bar Harbor, Maine|Bar Harbour, Maine]]]]

An estimated 13 million people went [[whale watching]] globally in 2008, in all oceans except the Arctic.{{sfn|O'Connor et al.|2009}} Rules and codes of conduct have been created to minimize harassment of the whales.{{sfn|Watchable Wildlife|2004}} Iceland, Japan and Norway have both whaling and whale watching industries. Whale watching lobbyists are concerned that the most inquisitive whales, which approach boats closely and provide much of the entertainment on whale-watching trips, will be the first to be taken if whaling is resumed in the same areas.{{sfn|Björgvinsson|2002}} Whale watching generated US$2.1 billion (£1.4 billion) per annum in tourism revenue worldwide, employing around 13,000 workers.{{sfn|O'Connor et al.|2009}} In contrast, the whaling industry, with the moratorium in place, generates US$31 million (£20 million) per year.{{sfn|Economist|2012}} The size and rapid growth of the industry has led to complex and continuing debates with the [[whaling|whaling industry]] about the best use of whales as a [[natural resource]].

===In myth, literature and art===
{{Further|Biomusic#Whale song in music}}
[[File:Im Februar 1598 an der holländischen Küste gestrandeter Walfisch.jpg|thumb|left|Engraving by [[Gilliam van der Gouwen]] depicting a stranded sperm whale being butchered on the Dutch coast, 1598]]

As marine creatures that reside in either the depths or the poles, humans knew very little about whales over the course of [[human history]]; many feared or revered them. The [[Vikings]] and various arctic tribes revered the whale as they were important pieces of their lives. In [[Inuit]] [[creation myth]]s, when 'Big Raven', a deity in human form, found a stranded whale, he was told by the [[Great Spirit]] where to find special mushrooms that would give him the strength to drag the whale back to the sea and thus, return order to the world. In an Icelandic legend, a man threw a stone at a [[fin whale]] and hit the blowhole, causing the whale to burst. The man was told not to go to sea for twenty years, but during the nineteenth year he went fishing and a whale came and killed him.

Whales played a major part in shaping the art forms of many coastal civilizations, such as the [[North Germanic peoples|Norse]], with some dating to the [[Stone Age]]. Petroglyphs off a cliff face in Bangudae, South Korea show 300 depictions of various animals, a third of which are whales. Some show particular detail in which there are throat pleats, typical of [[rorqual]]s. These petroglyphs show these people, of around 7,000 to 3,500 B.C.E. in South Korea, had a very high dependency on whales.{{sfn|World Archaeology|2014}}

The [[Pacific Islanders]] and [[Australian Aborigines]] viewed whales as bringers of good and joy. One exception is [[French Polynesia]], where, in many parts, cetaceans are met with great brutality.{{sfn|Cressey|1998}}

In coastal regions of China, Korea and Vietnam, the worship of whale gods, who were associated with [[Dragon King]]s after the arrival of [[Buddhism]], was present along with related legends.{{sfn|Lee Soon Ae|1999}} The god of the seas, according to Chinese folklore, was a large whale with human limbs.

In Thailand, the most common whales found are the [[Bryde's whale]]. Thai fishermen refer them as ''Pla pu'' ({{langx|th|ปลาปู่}}; {{IPA|th|plāː puː|pron}}), "grandfather fish", what with its large size and its long-term presence in the [[Bangkok Bay|upper reaches of]] the [[Gulf of Thailand]]. Fishermen do not fish for the whales, holding them in high regard and viewing them as akin to family members. They believe the whales bring good fortune, and their presence is considered as a sign of a healthy marine environment.{{sfn|Tha Chalom|2024}}

In Vietnam, whales hold a [[Whale worship|sense of divinity]]. They are so respected in their cultures that they occasionally hold funerals for beached whales, a custom deriving  from Vietnam's ancient sea-based [[Champa|Champa Kingdom]].{{sfn|The Independent|2010}}{{sfn|Sydney Morning Herald|2003}}{{sfn|Viegas|2010}}{{sfn|GNA|2005}}

[[File:Gustave Doré - Baron von Münchhausen - 067.jpg|upright|thumb|right|Illustration by [[Gustave Doré]] of [[Baron Munchausen]]'s tale of being swallowed by a whale. While the Biblical [[Book of Jonah]] refers to the Prophet [[Jonah]] being swallowed by "a big fish", in later derivations that "fish" was identified as a whale.]]
Whales have also played a role in sacred texts. The story of [[Jonah]] being swallowed by a great fish is told both in the [[Jonah in Islam|Qur'an]]<ref>{{qref|37|139-148|b=y}}</ref> and in the biblical [[Book of Jonah]] (and is mentioned by Jesus in the New Testament: [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 12:40.{{sfn|Matthew}}). This episode was frequently depicted in [[medieval]] art (for example, on a 12th-century column [[capital (architecture)|capital]] at the abbey church of [[Mozac]], France). The [[Bible]] also mentions whales in [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 1:21, [[Job (biblical figure)|Job]] 7:12, and [[Ezekiel]] 32:2. The "[[leviathan]]" described at length in Job 41:1-34 is generally understood to refer to a whale. The "sea monsters" in Lamentations 4:3 have been taken by some to refer to marine mammals, in particular whales, although most modern versions use the word "jackals" instead.{{sfn|Lamentations}}<!-- "sea monsters" (marine mammals) in the Douay-Rheims, KJV, Webster, AKJV, and English Jubilee 2000 version - KJV margin "sea calves" (seals) -->

[[File:Oswald Brierly - Whalers off Twofold Bay, New South Wales, 1867.jpg|thumb|left|''Whalers off Twofold Bay, New South Wales''. [[Watercolour]] by [[Oswald Brierly]], 1867]]
In 1585, [[Alessandro Farnese, Duke of Parma and Piacenza|Alessandro Farnese]], 1585, and Francois, Duke of Anjou, 1582, were greeted on his ceremonial entry into the port city of [[Antwerp]] by floats including "Neptune and the Whale", indicating at least<!--in John Mack's view--> the city's dependence on the sea for its wealth.{{sfn|Mack|2013}}

In 1896, an article in ''[[The Pall Mall Gazette]]'' popularised a practice of [[alternative medicine]] that probably began in the whaling town of [[Eden, New South Wales|Eden]], [[Australia]] two or three years earlier.{{sfn|The Pall Mall Gazette|1896}} It was believed that climbing inside a whale carcass and remaining there for a few hours would relieve symptoms of [[rheumatism]].{{sfn|Barlass|2014}}

Whales continue to be prevalent in modern literature. For example, [[Herman Melville]]'s ''[[Moby Dick]]'' features a "great white whale" as the main antagonist for Ahab. The whale is an albino sperm whale, considered by Melville to be the largest type of whale, and is partly based on the historically attested bull whale [[Mocha Dick]]. [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s ''[[Just So Stories]]'' includes the story of "How the Whale got in his Throat". A whale features in the award-winning children's book ''[[The Snail and the Whale]]'' (2003) by [[Julia Donaldson]] and [[Axel Scheffler]].

[[Niki Caro]]'s film the ''[[Whale Rider]]'' has a Māori girl ride a whale in her journey to be a suitable heir to the chieftain-ship.{{sfn|Jøn|2014}} Walt Disney's film ''[[Pinocchio (1940 film)|Pinocchio]]'' features a showdown with a giant whale named [[Monstro]] at the end of the film.

A recording of ''Song with a Humpback Whale'' by a team of marine scientists became popular in 1970. [[Alan Hovhaness]]'s orchestral composition ''[[And God Created Great Whales]]'' (1970) includes the recorded sounds of humpback and bowhead whales.{{sfn|Hovhannes|1970}} Recorded [[Whale vocalization|whale songs]] also appear in a number of other musical works, including [[Léo Ferré]]'s song "[[Il n'y a plus rien]]" and [[Judy Collins]]'s "Farewell to Tarwathie" (on the 1970 album ''[[Whales and Nightingales]]'').

===In captivity===
{{Main|Cetaceans in captivity}}
{{Further|Beluga whale#Captivity}}
[[File:WIKI SEA WORLD FL 2.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Beluga whale]]s and trainers in an aquarium]]

Belugas were the first whales to be kept in captivity. Other species were too rare, too shy, or too big. The first beluga was shown at [[Barnum's American Museum|Barnum's Museum]] in [[New York City]] in 1861.{{sfn|''New York Times''|1861}} For most of the 20th century, Canada was the predominant source of wild belugas.{{sfn|CMEPS|2006}} They were taken from the [[Estuary of St. Lawrence|St. Lawrence River estuary]] until the late 1960s, after which they were predominantly taken from the [[Churchill River (Hudson Bay)|Churchill River]] estuary until capture was banned in 1992.{{sfn|CMEPS|2006}} Russia has become the largest provider since it had been banned in Canada.{{sfn|CMEPS|2006}} Belugas are caught in the Amur River delta and their eastern coast, and then are either transported domestically to aquariums or [[dolphinarium]]s in [[Moscow]], [[St. Petersburg]], and [[Sochi]], or exported to other countries, such as Canada.{{sfn|CMEPS|2006}} Most captive belugas are caught in the wild, since captive-breeding programs are not very successful.{{sfn|WAZA}}

As of 2006, 30 belugas were in Canada and 28 in the United States, and 42 deaths in captivity had been reported up to that time.{{sfn|CMEPS|2006}} A single specimen can reportedly fetch up to US$100,000 (£64,160) on the market. The beluga's popularity is due to its unique colour and its [[facial expression]]s. The latter is possible because while most cetacean "smiles" are fixed, the extra movement afforded by the beluga's unfused cervical vertebrae allows a greater range of apparent expression.{{sfn|Bonner|1980|p={{page needed|date=April 2021}}}}

Between 1960 and 1992, the [[United States Navy|Navy]] carried out a program that included the study of marine mammals' abilities with [[Animal echolocation|sonar]], with the objective of improving the detection of underwater objects. A large number of belugas were used from 1975 on, the first being dolphins.{{sfn|Bonner|1980|p={{page needed|date=April 2021}}}}{{sfn|PBS ''Frontline''}} The program also included training them to carry equipment and material to divers working underwater by holding cameras in their mouths to locate lost objects, survey ships and [[submarine]]s, and underwater monitoring.{{sfn|PBS ''Frontline''}} A similar program was used by the [[Russian Navy]] during the Cold War, in which belugas were also trained for [[Naval mine|antimining]] operations in the Arctic.{{sfn|Beland|1996}}

Aquariums have tried housing other species of whales in captivity. The success of belugas turned attention to maintaining their relative, the narwhal, in captivity. However, in repeated attempts in the 1960s and 1970s, all narwhals kept in captivity died within months. A pair of pygmy right whales were retained in an enclosed area (with nets); they were eventually released in South Africa. There was one attempt to keep a stranded Sowerby's beaked whale calf in captivity; the calf rammed into the tank wall, breaking its rostrum, which resulted in death. It was thought that Sowerby's beaked whale evolved to swim fast in a straight line, and a {{convert|30|m|ft|adj=on}} tank was not big enough.{{sfn|Klinowska|1991|p=279}} There have been attempts to keep baleen whales in captivity. There were three attempts to keep grey whales in captivity. Gigi was a grey whale calf that died in transport. Gigi II was another grey whale calf that was captured in the [[Ojo de Liebre Lagoon]], and was transported to [[SeaWorld San Diego|SeaWorld]].{{sfn|Klinowska|1991|pp=372–373}} The {{convert|680|kg|lbs|adj=on}} calf was a popular attraction, and behaved normally, despite being separated from his mother. A year later, the {{convert|8000|kg|lbs|adj=on}} whale grew too big to keep in captivity and was released; it was the first of two grey whales, the other being another grey whale calf named JJ, to successfully be kept in captivity.{{sfn|Klinowska|1991|pp=372–373}} There were three attempts to keep minke whales in captivity in Japan. They were kept in a tidal pool with a [[waterway|sea-gate]] at the Izu Mito Sea Paradise. Another, unsuccessful, attempt was made by the U.S.{{Sfn|Klinowska|1991|p=383}} One stranded humpback whale calf was kept in captivity for rehabilitation, but died days later.{{sfn|Klinowska|1991|p=421}}