Editing Tone (linguistics) (section)

==Tone and inflection==
Tone has long been viewed as a phonological system. It was not until recent years that tone was found to play a role in [[inflection|inflectional morphology]]. Palancar and Léonard (2016)<ref>{{Cite book |author1=Palancar, E. L. |author2=Léonard, J.-L. |editor1=Palancar, E. L. |editor2=Léonard, J.-L. |chapter=Tone and inflection: An introduction |title=Tone and Inflection: New Facts and New Perspectives |year=2016 |pages=1–12 |location=Berlin |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |chapter-url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01099327/document |access-date=2019-01-23  |archive-date=2019-01-23  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190123225054/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01099327/document |url-status=live }}</ref> provided an example with Tlatepuzco [[Chinantecan languages|Chinantec]] (an [[Oto-Manguean languages|Oto-Manguean language]] spoken in Southern [[Mexico]]), where tones are able to distinguish [[Grammatical mood|mood]], [[Grammatical person|person]], and [[Grammatical number|number]]:
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Forms of 'bend' in Tlatepuzco Chinantec
! scope="col" | 
! scope="col" | 1 SG
! scope="col" | 1 PL
! scope="col" | 2
! scope="col" | 3
|-
! scope="row" | Completive
| húʔ˩ || húʔ˩˥ || húʔ˩ || húʔ˧
|-
! scope="row" | Incompletive
| húʔ˩˧ || húʔ˩˧ || húʔ˩˧ || húʔ˧
|-
! scope="row" | Irrealis
| húʔ˩˥ || húʔ˩˥ || húʔ˩˥ || húʔ˧
|-
|}

In [[Iau language]] (the most tonally complex [[Lakes Plain languages|Lakes Plain language]], predominantly monosyllabic), nouns have an inherent tone (e.g. be˧ 'fire' but be˦˧ 'flower'), but verbs don't have any inherent tone. For verbs, a tone is used to mark [[grammatical aspect|aspect]]. The first work that mentioned this was published in 1986.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sealang.net/archives/nusa/pdf/nusa-v26.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170304115044/http://sealang.net/archives/nusa/pdf/nusa-v26.pdf |archive-date=2017-03-04 |url-status=live |first=Janet |last=Bateman |title=Iau Verb Morphology |series=Nusa, Linguistic Studies of Indonesian and Other Languages in Indonesia |publisher=Jakarta: Universitas Katolik Atma Jaya |pages=3rd (9th in PDF)}}</ref> Example paradigms:<ref name="Foley-NWNG">{{cite book |last=Foley |first=William A. |authorlink=William A. Foley |editor1-last=Palmer |editor1-first=Bill |date=2018 |title=The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide |chapter=The languages of Northwest New Guinea |series= The World of Linguistics |volume=4 |location=Berlin |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |pages=433–568 |isbn=978-3-11-028642-7}}</ref>
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Aspects in Iau
! Tone !! Aspect !! ba 'come'  !! tai 'moving s.t. toward' !! da 'locate s.t. inside'
|-
| tone 2 || totality of action, punctual || ba˦ 'came'  || tai˦ 'pulled' || da˦ 'ate, put it in (stomach)'
|-
| tone 3 || resultative durative || ba˧ 'has come'  || tai˧ 'has been pulled off' || da˧ 'has been loaded onto s.t.'
|-
| tone 21 || totality of action, incomplete || ba˦˥ 'might come'  || tai˦˥ 'might pull' || 
|-
| tone 43 || resultative punctual || ba˨˧ 'came to get'  || tai˨˧ 'land on s.t.' || da˨˧ 'dip into water, wash s.t.'
|-
| tone 24 || [[telicity|telic]] punctual || ba˦˨ 'came to end'  || tai˦˨ 'fell to ground' || da˦˨ 'eaten it all up'
|-
| tone 23 || telic, incomplete || ba˦˧ 'still coming'  || tai˦˧ 'still falling' || da˦˧ 'still eating it up'
|-
| tone 34 || totality of action, durative || ba˧˨ 'be coming'  || tai˧˨ 'be pulling' || 
|-
| tone 243 || telic durative || ba˦˨˧ 'sticking to'  || tai˦˨˧ 'be falling' || 
|-
|  ||  ||  || tai˦˥–˧˨ 'pull on s.t., shake hands' || 
|-
|  ||  ||  || tai˦˥–˧ 'have pulled s.t., shook hands' || 
|}

Tones are used to differentiate [[Grammatical case|cases]] as well, as in [[Maasai language]] (a [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan language]] spoken in [[Kenya]] and [[Tanzania]]):<ref>{{cite book |last=Hyman |first=L. M. |editor1-last=Palancar |editor1-first=E. L. |editor2-last=Léonard |editor2-first=J. L. |chapter=Morphological tonal assignments in conflict: Who wins? |title=Tone and Inflection: New Facts and New Perspectives |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |location=Berlin, Germany |date=2016 |pages= 15–39}}</ref>
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Case difference in Maasai
! scope="col" | gloss
! scope="col" | Nominative
! scope="col" | Accusative
|-
! scope="row" |'head'
| èlʊ̀kʊ̀nyá || èlʊ́kʊ́nyá
|-
! scope="row" |'rat'
| èndérònì || èndèrónì
|-
|}

Certain [[varieties of Chinese]] are known to express meaning by means of tone change although further investigations are required. Examples from two [[Yue Chinese|Yue dialects]] spoken in [[Guangdong Province]] are shown below.<ref name="Chen2004">Chen, Matthew Y. (2000). ''Tone Sandhi: Patterns across Chinese dialects''. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.</ref> In [[Taishanese|Taishan]], tone change indicates the grammatical number of personal pronouns. In Zhongshan, [[perfective aspect|perfective]] verbs are marked with tone change.

* Taishan
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| ngwoi˧ || 'I' (singular)
|-
| ngwoi˨ || 'we' (plural)
|}

* Zhongshan
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| hy˨ || 'go'
|-
| hy˧˥ || 'gone' (perfective)
|}

The following table compares the personal pronouns of Sixian dialect (a dialect of [[Taiwanese Hakka]])<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Lai, W.-Y. |title=The Source of Hakka Personal Pronoun and Genitive with the Viewpoint of Diminutive |journal=Journal of Taiwanese Languages and Literature |year=2010  |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=53–80}}</ref> with Zaiwa and Jingpho<ref>{{Cite journal |author= Sun, H.-K. |title= Case markers of personal pronouns in Tibeto-Burman languages |journal=Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area |year=1996  |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=1–15}}</ref> (both [[Tibeto-Burman languages]] spoken in [[Yunnan]] and [[Myanmar|Burma]]). From this table, we find the distinction between nominative, genitive, and accusative is marked by tone change and [[Alternation (linguistics)|sound alternation]].

{|class="wikitable"
|+ Comparison of personal pronouns
! scope="col" | 
! scope="col" | [[Sixian dialect|Sixian]]
! scope="col" | [[Zaiwa language|Zaiwa]]
! scope="col" | [[Jingpho language|Jingpho]]
|-
! scope="row" | 1 Nom
| ŋai˩ || ŋo˥˩ || ŋai˧
|-
! scope="row" | 1 Gen
| ŋa˨˦ or ŋai˩ ke˥ || ŋa˥ || ŋjeʔ˥
|-
! scope="row" | 1 Acc
| ŋai˩ || ŋo˧˩ || ŋai˧
|-
! scope="row" | 2 Nom
| ŋ̍˩ || naŋ˥˩ || naŋ˧
|-
! scope="row" | 2 Gen
| ŋia˨˦ or ŋ̍˩ ke˥ || naŋ˥ || naʔ˥
|-
! scope="row" | 2 Acc
| ŋ̍˩ || naŋ˧˩ || naŋ˧
|-
! scope="row" | 3 Nom
| ki˩ || jaŋ˧˩ || khji˧
|-
! scope="row" | 3 Gen
| kia˨˦ or ki˩ ke˥ || jaŋ˥˩ || khjiʔ˥
|-
! scope="row" | 3 Acc
| ki˩ || jaŋ˧˩ || khji˧
|-
|}