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==Classification== There are six fairly uncontroversial nodes within the Semitic languages: [[East Semitic languages|East Semitic]], [[Northwest Semitic languages|Northwest Semitic]], [[Classification of Arabic languages|North Arabian]], [[Old South Arabian]] (also known as Sayhadic), [[Modern South Arabian languages|Modern South Arabian]], and [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethiopian Semitic]]. These are generally grouped further, but there is ongoing debate as to which belong together. The classification based on shared innovations given below, established by [[Robert Hetzron]] in 1976 and with later emendations by John Huehnergard and Rodgers as summarized in Hetzron 1997, is the most widely accepted today. In particular, several Semiticists still argue for the traditional (partially nonlinguistic) view of Arabic as part of South Semitic, and a few (e.g. [[Alexander Militarev]] or the German-Egyptian professor Arafa Hussein Mustafa{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}}) see Modern South Arabian as a third branch of Semitic alongside East and West Semitic, rather than as a subgroup of South Semitic. However, a new classification groups Old South Arabian as Central Semitic instead.{{sfn|Hackett|2006|pp=929–35}} [[Roger Blench]] notes that the [[Gurage languages]] are highly divergent and wonders whether they might not be a primary branch, reflecting an origin of Afroasiatic in or near Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Blench |first1=Roger |title=Archaeology, Language, and the African Past |date=2006 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield|Altamira Press]] |location=Lanham, Maryland |isbn=978-0-7591-0466-2 |page=157 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=esFy3Po57A8C&dq=%22blench%22+%22gurage%22&pg=PA157 |language=en |access-date=3 February 2024 |archive-date=26 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526080929/https://books.google.com/books?id=esFy3Po57A8C&dq=%22blench%22+%22gurage%22&pg=PA157#v=onepage&q=%22blench%22%20%22gurage%22&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> At a lower level, there is still no general agreement on where to draw the line between "languages" and "dialects"{{snd}}an issue particularly relevant in Arabic, Aramaic and Gurage{{snd}}and the strong mutual influences between Arabic dialects render a genetic subclassification of them particularly difficult. A [[computational phylogenetic]] analysis by Kitchen et al. (2009) considers the Semitic languages to have originated in the [[Levant]] {{circa|3750 BCE}} during the Early [[Bronze Age]], with early Ethiosemitic originating from southern Arabia {{circa|800 BCE}}.{{sfn|Kitchen|Ehret|Assefa|2009|pp=2703–10}} Evidence for gene movements consistent with this were found in Almarri et al. (2021).<ref>{{Cite journal|url = https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.10.18.342816v2.full|doi = 10.1016/j.cell.2021.07.013|biorxiv = 10.1101/2020.10.18.342816|title = The Genomic History of the Middle East|year = 2020|last1 = Almarri|first1 = Mohamed A.|last2 = Haber|first2 = Marc|last3 = Lootah|first3 = Reem A.|last4 = Hallast|first4 = Pille|last5 = Turki|first5 = Saeed Al|last6 = Martin|first6 = Hilary C.|last7 = Xue|first7 = Yali|last8 = Tyler-Smith|first8 = Chris|journal = Cell|volume = 184|issue = 18|pages = 4612–4625.e14|pmid = 34352227|pmc = 8445022|access-date = 24 December 2021|archive-date = 25 February 2022|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220225030711/https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.10.18.342816v2.full|url-status = live}}</ref> The [[Himyaritic language|Himyaritic]] and [[Sutean language]]s appear to have been Semitic, but are unclassified due to insufficient data. ;Summary classification * [[East Semitic languages|East Semitic]] * [[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]] ** [[Central Semitic languages|Central Semitic]] *** [[Northwest Semitic languages|Northwest Semitic]] *** [[Arabic languages|Arabic]] ** [[South Semitic languages|South Semitic]] *** Western: [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethiopian Semitic]] and [[Old South Arabian]] *** Eastern: [[Modern South Arabian languages|Modern South Arabian]] ===Detailed list=== {{tree list}} * '''Semitic''' ** [[East Semitic languages|East Semitic]] (All extinct) *** [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] **** Old Akkadian **** Babylonian **** Assyrian **** [[Canaano-Akkadian language|Canaano-Akkadian]] *** [[Eblaite language|Eblaite]] *** [[Kish (Sumer)|Kishite]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0FGEMW1NQmwC&pg=PA40|title= Civilizations of Ancient Iraq|author1=Benjamin Read Foster |author2=Karen Polinger Foster |page= 40|isbn= 978-0691137223|year= 2009|publisher= Princeton University Press}}</ref><ref name="Rebecca">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eiHXt0yIWiIC&pg=PA3|title= Sargonic Akkadian: A Historical and Comparative Study of the Syllabic Texts|author=Rebecca Hasselbach|page= 3|isbn= 9783447051729|year= 2005|publisher= Otto Harrassowitz Verlag}}</ref> *** [[Dilmun#People and language|Dilmunite]] ? ** [[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]] *** [[Central Semitic languages|Central Semitic]] **** [[Northwest Semitic languages|Northwest Semitic]] ***** [[Aramaic]] ****** [[Old Aramaic]] ******* [[Samalian language|Samalian]] (extinct) ******* [[Imperial Aramaic]] (extinct) ******** [[Biblical Aramaic]] (extinct) ******* [[Aramaic#Middle Aramaic|Middle Aramaic]] ******** [[Eastern Aramaic languages|Eastern Aramaic]] ([[dialect continuum]]) ********* [[Aramaic#Eastern Middle Aramaic|Eastern Middle Aramaic]] ********** [[Syriac language|Classical Syriac]] ********** [[Hatran Aramaic]] (extinct) ********** [[Central Neo-Aramaic]] *********** [[Turoyo language|Turoyo (Surayt)]] *********** [[Mlaḥsô language|Mlaḥsô]] (extinct) ********** [[Northeastern Neo-Aramaic]] ([[dialect continuum]]) *********** [[Suret language|Sureth]] ************ [[Assyrian Neo-Aramaic]] ************* [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia|Christian Urmi Neo-Aramaic]] ************* [[Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bohtan|Bohtan Neo-Aramaic]] ************* [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Senaya|Senaya Neo-Aramaic]] ************ [[Chaldean Neo-Aramaic]] *********** [[Koy Sanjaq Christian Neo-Aramaic]] *********** [[Neo-Aramaic dialect of Hertevin|Hertevin Neo-Aramaic]] *********** [[Qaraqosh Neo-Aramaic]] *********** [[Judeo-Aramaic languages#Modern dialects|Jewish Assyrian Neo-Aramaic]] ************ [[Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic|Lishanid Noshan]] ************ [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani|Barzani Jewish Neo-Aramaic]] ************ [[Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic|Hulaulá]] ************ [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho|Lishana Deni]] ************ [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia|Lishán Didán]] ************ [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure|Betanure Jewish Neo-Aramaic]] ************ [[Koy Sanjaq Jewish Neo-Aramaic]] ********** Southeastern Aramaic *********** [[Mandaic language|Mandaic]] ************ [[Neo-Mandaic]] *********** [[Jewish Babylonian Aramaic]] (extinct) ******** [[Western Aramaic languages|Western Aramaic]] ([[dialect continuum]]) ********* [[Aramaic#Western Middle Aramaic|Western Middle Aramaic]] ********** [[Nabataean Aramaic]] (extinct) ********** [[Palmyrene Aramaic]] (extinct) ********** [[Western Neo-Aramaic]] ********** Palestinian Aramaic (All extinct) *********** [[Samaritan Aramaic language|Samaritan Aramaic]] *********** [[Jewish Palestinian Aramaic]] ************ [[Galilean dialect]] *********** [[Christian Palestinian Aramaic]] ********** [[Lebanese Aramaic]] (extinct) ******** [[Armazic language|Armazic]] (extinct) ***** [[Canaanite languages|Canaanite]] ****** North Canaanite ******* [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]] (extinct) ******** [[Punic language|Punic]] (extinct) ****** South Canaanite ******* [[Ammonite language|Ammonite]] (extinct) ******* [[Moabite language|Moabite]] (extinct) ******* [[Edomite language|Edomite]] (extinct) ******* [[Biblical Hebrew]] ******** [[Mishnaic Hebrew]] ********* [[Medieval Hebrew]] ********** [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ([[Modern Hebrew]]) (revived) ******** [[Samaritan Hebrew]] (extinct (apart from modern liturgical uses)) ***** [[Ugaritic]] (extinct) ***** [[Amorite language|Amorite]] (extinct) ***** [[Taymanitic]] ? (extinct) **** [[Classification of Arabic languages|North Arabian]] ***** [[Old Arabic]] ****** [[Pre-classical Arabic]] ******* [[Arabic]] ******** [[Classical Arabic]] ********* [[Modern Standard Arabic]] ******** [[Mashriqi Arabic]] (Eastern Arabic) ([[dialect continuum]]) ********* [[Peninsular Arabic]] ([[dialect continuum]]) ********** [[Old Hijazi Arabic]] *********** [[Hejazi Arabic]] ********** [[Gulf Arabic]] *********** [[Emirati Arabic]] *********** [[Bahraini Gulf Arabic]] *********** [[Kuwaiti Arabic]] ********** [[Bahrani Arabic]] ********** [[Omani Arabic]] ********** [[Shihhi Arabic]] ********** [[Dhofari Arabic]] ********** [[Yemeni Arabic]] ([[dialect continuum]]) *********** [[Hadhrami Arabic]] ************ [[Indonesian Arabic]] *********** [[Sanʽani Arabic]] *********** [[Taʽizzi-Adeni Arabic]] ************ Taʽizzi Arabic ************ Adeni Arabic ************ Djibouti Arabic *********** [[Judeo-Yemeni Arabic]] *********** [[Tihamiyya Arabic]] ************ [[Yemeni Arabic#Zabidi dialect|Zabidi dialect]] *********** [[Yemeni Arabic#Yafi'i Arabic dialect|Yafi'i Arabic]] ********** [[Northwest Arabian Arabic]] (Levantine Bedawi Arabic, Eastern Egyptian Bedawi Arabic) ********** [[Najdi Arabic]] ********** [[Bareqi Arabic]] ********* Egypto-Sudanic Arabic ([[dialect continuum]]) ********** [[Egyptian Arabic]] ([[dialect continuum]]) *********** [[Judeo-Egyptian Arabic]] *********** [[Saʽidi Arabic]] *********** [[Egyptian Arabic|Cairene Arabic]] ********** Sudanese-Chadian Arabic ([[dialect continuum]]) *********** [[Sudanese Arabic]] *********** [[Chadian Arabic]] ********* [[Levantine Arabic]] ([[dialect continuum]]) ********** [[North Levantine Arabic]] *********** [[Çukurova Arabic|Cilician Arabic]] *********** [[Aleppo Arabic|Aleppine Arabic]] *********** [[Damascus Arabic|Damascene Arabic]] *********** [[Judeo-Syrian Arabic]] *********** [[Lebanese Arabic]] ********** [[South Levantine Arabic]] *********** [[Palestinian Arabic]] ************ [[Modern Palestinian Judeo-Arabic]] *********** [[Jordanian Arabic]] ********* [[Mesopotamian Arabic]]/[[Iraqi Arabic]] ([[dialect continuum]]) ********** [[Gilit Mesopotamian Arabic|Gilit]] Dialects ([[dialect continuum]]) *********** [[Baghdadi Arabic]] *********** [[Shawi Arabic]] *********** [[Khuzestani Arabic]] *********** [[South Mesopotamian Arabic]] ********** [[North Mesopotamian Arabic|Qeltu]] Dialects ([[dialect continuum]]) *********** [[North Mesopotamian Arabic]] *********** [[Anatolian Arabic]] *********** [[Judeo-Iraqi Arabic]] ************ [[Baghdad Jewish Arabic|Jewish Baghdadi Arabic]] *********** [[Cypriot Arabic]] ********* [[Central Asian Arabic]] ([[dialect continuum]]) ********** Bakhtiari Arabic ********** Bukharian Arabic ********** Kashkadarian Arabic ********** [[Khorasani Arabic]] ********* [[Shirvani Arabic]] (extinct) ******** [[Maghrebi Arabic]] (Western Arabic) ([[dialect continuum]]) ********* [[Pre-Hilalian Arabic dialects|Pre-Hilalian dialects]] ********** [[Pre-Hilalian Urban Arabic dialects]] *********** [[Fessi dialect]] ********** [[Jebli Arabic]] ********** [[Jijel Arabic]] ********** Maghrebi [[Judeo-Arabic]] *********** [[Judeo-Moroccan Arabic]] *********** [[Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic]] *********** [[Judeo-Tunisian Arabic]] *********** [[Judeo-Algerian Arabic]] ********** [[Siculo-Arabic]] *********** [[Maltese Language|Maltese]] ************ [[Cottonera Dialect]] ************ [[Gozitan dialects]] ************ [[Qormi dialect]] ************ [[Żejtun dialect]] ************ [[Maltralian]] ************ [[Corfiot Maltese]] (extinct) ********** [[Andalusi Arabic]] (extinct) ********** Eastern pre-Hilali Dialects *********** [[Tunisian Arabic]] ********** Western pre-Hilali dialects ********* [[Hilalian dialects]] ********** Sulaym dialects *********** [[Libyan Arabic]] ************ [[Western Egyptian Bedawi Arabic]] ********** Eastern Hilali dialects ********** Central Hilali dialects *********** [[Algerian Saharan Arabic]] ********** Western Hilali dialects ********** Maqil dialects *********** [[Hassaniya Arabic]] ********* Koines ********** [[Algerian Arabic]] ********** [[Moroccan Arabic]] ******* [[Pre-classical Arabic#ˀAzd dialect|ˀAzd dialect]] (extinct) ******* [[Pre-classical Arabic#Huḏayl dialect|Huḏayl dialect]] (extinct) ******* [[Pre-classical Arabic#Ṭayyiˀ dialect|Ṭayyiˀ dialect]] (extinct) ****** [[Safaitic#Language|Safaitic]] (extinct) ****** [[Hismaic]] (extinct) ****** [[Hasaitic]] (extinct) ****** [[Nabataean Arabic]] (extinct) ***** [[Dadanitic]] ? (extinct) ***** [[Thamudic]] ? (extinct) *** [[South Semitic languages|South Semitic]] **** Western South Semitic ***** [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethiopic]] ****** North Ethiopic ******* [[Geʽez]] (Classical Ethiopic) ******** [[Dahalik language|Dahalik]] ******** [[Tigre language|Tigre]] ******* [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] ****** South Ethiopic ******* Transversal South Ethiopic ******** Amharic–Argobba ********* [[Amharic]] ********* [[Argobba language|Argobba]] ******** Harari–East Gurage ********* [[Harari language|Harari]] ********* [[Gurage languages#Eastern|East Gurage]] ********** [[Siltʼe language|Silt'e]] ********** [[Zay language|Zway]] ******* Outer South Ethiopic ******** n-group ********* [[Gafat language|Gafat]] (extinct) ********* [[Soddo language|Soddo]] ******** tt-group ********* [[Mesmes language|Mesmes]] (extinct) ********* [[Muher language|Muher]] ********* [[Gurage languages#Western|West Gurage]] ********** [[Mesqan language|Mesqan]] ********** Sebat Bet *********** [[Sebat Bet Gurage language|Sebat Bet Gurage]] *********** [[Inor language|Inor]] ***** [[Old South Arabian|Old South Arabian (Ṣayhadic)]] ****** [[Sabaic]] (extinct) ****** [[Minaean language|Minaean]] (extinct) ****** [[Qatabanian language|Qatabanian]] (extinct) ******* Awsānian (extinct) ****** [[Hadramautic language|Hadramautic]] (extinct) ****** [[Razihi language|Razihi]] ? ****** [[Faifi language|Faifi]] ? ****** [[Himyaritic language|Himyaritic]] ? (extinct) **** [[Modern South Arabian languages|Modern South Arabian (Eastern South Semitic)]] ***** [[Baṭḥari language|Baṭḥari]] ***** [[Ḥarsusi language|Ḥarsusi]] ***** [[Hobyót language|Hobyót]] ***** [[Mehri language|Mehri]] ***** [[Shehri language|Shehri]] ***** [[Soqotri language|Soqotri]] ** Unclassified *** [[Sutean language|Sutean]] (extinct) {{tree list/end}}
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