Editing Saffron (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of saffron}}
[[File:Cueilleuse de safran, fresque, Akrotiri, Grèce.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.1|A detail from the "Saffron Gatherers" fresco of the "Xeste 3" building in the Bronze Age settlement of [[Akrotiri (prehistoric city)|Akrotiri]] on the Aegean island of Santorini. It is one of many depicting saffron preserved at the excavation site]]

Saffron likely originated in Iran,<ref name="Ghorbani et al." /> Greece,<ref name="Gresta et al." /> Mesopotamia, <ref name="Ghorbani et al." /> or Kashmir.<ref name="auto"/> Harold McGee<ref>Harold McGee. On Food and Cooking, 2004 edition, pg 422. Scribner, New York, NY,</ref> states that it was domesticated in or near Greece during the Bronze Age. ''C.&nbsp;sativus'' is probably a [[triploid]] form of ''[[Crocus cartwrightianus]]'',{{Sfn|Grilli Caiola|2003|p=1}}<ref name="Schmidt et al.">{{Cite journal|last1=Schmidt|first1=Thomas|last2=Heitkam|first2=Tony|last3=Liedtke|first3=Susan|last4=Schubert|first4=Veit|last5=Menzel|first5=Gerhard|title=Adding color to a century-old enigma: multi-color chromosome identification unravels the autotriploid nature of saffron (''Crocus sativus'') as a hybrid of wild ''Crocus cartwrightianus'' cytotypes|journal=New Phytologist|volume=222|issue=4|pages=1965–1980|doi=10.1111/nph.15715|issn=1469-8137|pmid=30690735|year=2019|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Harpke et al.">{{Cite journal|last1=Harpke|first1=Dörte|last2=Meng|first2=Shuchun|last3=Rutten|first3=Twan|last4=Kerndorff|first4=Helmut|last5=Blattner|first5=Frank R.|date=1 March 2013|title=Phylogeny of ''Crocus'' (Iridaceae) based on one chloroplast and two nuclear loci: Ancient hybridization and chromosome number evolution|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|volume=66|issue=3|pages=617–627|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2012.10.007|pmid=23123733|bibcode=2013MolPE..66..617H |issn=1055-7903}}</ref><ref name="Attica saffron">{{cite journal |last1=Nemati |first1=Zahra |last2=Harpke |first2=Dörte |last3=Gemicioglu |first3=Almila |last4=Kerndorff |first4=Helmut |last5=Blattner |first5=Frank R. |title=Saffron (Crocus sativus) is an autotriploid that evolved in Attica (Greece) from wild Crocus cartwrightianus |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |date=2019 |volume=136 |pages=14–20 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2019.03.022 |pmid=30946897 |bibcode=2019MolPE.136...14N |ref=Atticsaff|doi-access=free }}</ref> which is also known as "wild saffron".{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=24}} Saffron crocus was slowly propagated by humans throughout much of [[Eurasia]] and was later brought to parts of North Africa, North America, and Oceania.

Several wild species of ''Crocus'' similar to the commercial plant are known to have been harvested in recent times for use as saffron. ''[[Crocus ancyrensis]]'' was used to make saffron in Sivas in Central Turkey, the corms were also eaten. ''Crocus cartwrightianus'' was harvested on Andros in the islands of the Cyclades, for medicinal purposes and the stigmas for making a pigment called Zafran. ''[[Crocus longiflorus]]'' stigmas were used for saffron in Sicily. ''Crocus thomasii'' stigmas were used to flavour dishes around Taranto, South Italy. In Syria the stigmas of an unknown wild species were collected by women and children, sun-dried and pressed into small tablets which were sold in the Bazaars.<ref name="Maw Saffron">{{cite book |last1=Maw |first1=George |title=A Monograph of the Genus Crocus |date=1886 |publisher=Dulau and Co. |location=Soho Square, London |pages=87, 164, 207, 250 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/52656#page/101/mode/1up |access-date=6 April 2024 |ref=Maw Saffron}}</ref> Not all ancient depictions or descriptions of saffron spice or flowers are certain to be the same species as the modern commercial species used for spice.<ref name="Ancient Saffron">{{cite journal |last1=Kazemi-Shahandashti |first1=Seyyedeh-Sanam |last2=Mann |first2=Ludwig |last3=El-nagish |first3=Abdullah |last4=Harpke |first4=Dörte |last5=Nemati |first5=Zahra |last6=Usadel |first6=Björn |last7=Heitkam |first7=Tony |title=Ancient Artworks and Crocus Genetics Both Support Saffron's Origin in Early Greece |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |date=2022 |volume=13 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2022.834416 |doi-access=free |pmid=35283878 |ref=Ancient Saffron|pmc=8913524 }}</ref>

===West Asia===
Saffron was detailed in a 7th-century BC Assyrian botanical reference compiled under [[Ashurbanipal]].{{Sfn|Russo|Dreher|Mathre|2003|p=6}} Documentation of saffron's use over the span of 3,500 years has been uncovered.<ref name=Honan2004>{{cite news |last=Honan |first=W. H. |date=2 March 2004 |title=Researchers Rewrite First Chapter for the History of Medicine |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/02/science/02MEDI.html?ex=1393563600 |access-date=13 September 2011}}</ref> Saffron-based pigments have indeed been found in 50,000-year-old depictions of prehistoric places in northwest Iran.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=2}}{{Sfn|Humphries|1998|p=20}} The Sumerians later used wild-growing saffron in their remedies and magical potions.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=12}} Saffron was an article of long-distance trade before the [[Minoan palace]] culture's 2nd millennium BC peak. Ancient Persians cultivated Persian saffron (''Crocus sativus'' var. ''haussknechtii'' now called ''[[Crocus haussknechtii]]'' by botanists) in [[Derbent]], [[Isfahan]], and [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] by the 10th century BC. At such sites, saffron threads were woven into textiles,{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=2}} ritually offered to divinities, and used in dyes, perfumes, medicines, and body washes.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=17–18}} Saffron threads would thus be scattered across beds and mixed into hot teas as a curative for bouts of melancholy. Non-Persians also feared the Persians' usage of saffron as a drugging agent and aphrodisiac.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=41}} During his Asian campaigns, [[Alexander the Great]] used Persian saffron in his infusions, rice, and baths as a curative for battle wounds. Alexander's troops imitated the practice from the Persians and brought saffron-bathing to Greece.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=54–55}}

=== South Asia ===
[[File:Maitreya Bodhisattva and Monks Singapore.jpeg|thumb|right|Buddhist adepts wearing saffron-coloured robes, pray in the Hundred Dragons Hall, [[Buddha Tooth Relic Temple and Museum]], Singapore.]]

Conflicting theories explain saffron's arrival in South Asia. Kashmiri and Chinese accounts date its arrival anywhere between 2500 and 900 years ago.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lak |first=D. |date=23 November 1998 |title=Gathering Kashmir's Saffron |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/213043.stm |access-date=12 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Fotedar |first=S. |date=1999 |title=Cultural Heritage of India: The Kashmiri Pandit Contribution |periodical=Vitasta |publisher=Kashmir Sabha of Kolkata |volume=32 |issue=1 |page=128 |url=http://vitasta.org/1999/index.html |access-date=15 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929225731/http://vitasta.org/1999/index.html |archive-date=29 September 2011  }}</ref>{{Sfn|Dalby|2002|p=95}} Historians studying ancient Persian records date the arrival to sometime prior to 500 BC,{{Sfn|McGee|2004|p=422}} attributing it to a Persian transplantation of saffron corms to stock new gardens and parks.{{Sfn|Dalby|2003|p=256}} Phoenicians then marketed Kashmiri saffron as a dye and a treatment for melancholy. Its use in foods and dyes subsequently spread throughout South Asia. Buddhist monks wear saffron-coloured robes; however, the robes are not dyed with costly saffron but [[turmeric]], a less expensive dye, or [[jackfruit]].{{Sfn|Finlay|2003|p=224}} Monks' robes are dyed the same colour to show equality with each other, and turmeric or ochre were the cheapest, most readily available dyes. [[Gamboge]] is also used to dye the robes.{{Sfn|Hanelt|2001|p=1352}}{{clear left}}

=== East Asia ===
Some historians believe that saffron came to China with Mongol invaders from Persia.{{Sfn|Fletcher|2005|p=11}} Yet it is mentioned in ancient Chinese medical texts, including the forty-volume ''[[Shennong Bencaojing]]'', a pharmacopoeia written around 300–200&nbsp;BC. Traditionally credited to the legendary [[Yan Emperor]] and the deity [[Shennong]], it discusses 252 plant-based medical treatments for various disorders.{{Sfn|Hayes|2001|p=6}} Nevertheless, around the 3rd century AD, the Chinese were referring to it as having a Kashmiri provenance. According to the herbalist Wan Zhen, "the habitat of saffron is in Kashmir, where people grow it principally to offer it to the Buddha". Wan also reflected on how it was used in his time: "The flower withers after a few days, and then the saffron is obtained. It is valued for its uniform yellow colour. It can be used to aromatise wine."{{Sfn|Dalby|2002|p=95}}

===South East Mediterranean===
Minoan depictions of saffron are now considered to be ''[[Crocus cartwrightianus]]''.<ref name="Ancient Saffron"/> The [[Minoan civilization|Minoans]] portrayed saffron in their palace frescoes by 1600–1500 BC; they hint at its possible use as a therapeutic drug.<ref name=Honan2004/>{{Sfn|Ferrence|Bendersky|2004|p=1}} Ancient Greek legends told of sea voyages to [[Cilicia]], where adventurers sought what they believed were the world's most valuable threads.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=2–3}} Another legend tells of Crocus and Smilax, whereby Crocus is bewitched and transformed into the first saffron crocus.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=2}} Ancient perfumers in Egypt, physicians in [[Gaza City|Gaza]], townspeople in [[Rhodes]],{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=58}} and the Greek ''[[hetaerae]]'' courtesans used saffron in their [[scented water]]s, perfumes and potpourris, mascaras and ointments, divine offerings, and medical treatments.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=41}}

In late [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic Egypt]], [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]] used saffron in her baths so that lovemaking would be more pleasurable.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=55}} Egyptian healers used saffron as a treatment for all varieties of gastrointestinal ailments.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=34–35}} Saffron was also used as a fabric dye in such [[Levant]]ine cities as [[Sidon]] and [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]] in Lebanon.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=59}} [[Aulus Cornelius Celsus]] prescribes saffron in medicines for wounds, cough, colic, and scabies, and in the [[mithridatium]].{{Sfn|Celsus|1989}}

===Western Europe===
[[File:Crocus sativus 003.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Preserved "Safran", Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde, Karlsruhe, Germany]]
Saffron was a notable ingredient in certain Roman recipes such as [[jusselle]] and [[conditum]].<ref name="Way 1843 p. 268">{{cite book | last=Way | first=A. | title=Promptorium parvulorum sive clericorum, lexicon Anglo-Latinum princeps, recens. A. Way | series=Camden soc | issue=v. 1 | year=1843 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G_0UAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA268 | access-date=18 May 2016 | page=268}}</ref><ref name="Pratt 1855 p. 180">{{cite book | last=Pratt | first=A. | title=The Flowering Plants of Great Britain | publisher=Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge | issue=v. 3 | year=1855 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ji8OAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA180 | access-date=18 May 2016 | page=180}}</ref><ref name="Napier 1882 p. 104">{{cite book | editor-last=Napier | editor-first=R. | title=A Noble Boke Off Cookry Ffor a Prynce Houssolde Or Eny Other Estately Houssholde | publisher=Elliot Stock | year=1882 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XPspAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA104 | access-date=18 May 2016 | pages=104–105}} (Reprinted verbatim from a rare manuscript in the Holkham Collection.)</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.klassischearchaeologie.phil.uni-erlangen.de/realia/essen/rezepte/conditum.html |title=Conditum Paradoxum – Würzwein |translator-first=R. |translator-last=Maier |year=1991 |language=de |trans-title=Conditum Paradoxum – Spiced Wine |access-date=3 February 2012 |archive-date=8 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180308040216/http://www.klassischearchaeologie.phil.uni-erlangen.de/realia/essen/rezepte/conditum.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Such was the Romans' love of saffron that Roman colonists took it with them when they settled in southern [[Gaul]], where it was extensively cultivated until Rome's fall. With this fall, European saffron cultivation plummeted. Competing theories state that saffron only returned to France with 8th-century AD Moors or with the [[Avignon]] papacy in the 14th century AD.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=63}} Similarly, the spread of Islamic civilisation may have helped reintroduce the crop to Spain and Italy.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=70}}

The 14th-century [[Black Death]] caused demand for saffron-based [[medicament]]s to peak, and Europe imported large quantities of threads via Venetian and Genoan ships from southern and Mediterranean lands such as Rhodes. The theft of one such shipment by noblemen sparked the fourteen-week-long [[Saffron War]].{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=99}} The conflict and resulting fear of rampant saffron piracy spurred corm cultivation in [[Basel]]; it thereby grew prosperous.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=101}} The crop then spread to [[Nuremberg]], where endemic and insalubrious adulteration brought on the ''Safranschou'' code—whereby culprits were variously fined, imprisoned, and executed.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=103–104}} Meanwhile, cultivation continued in southern France, Italy, and Spain.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=133}}

Direct archaeological evidence of mediaeval saffron consumption in Scandinavia comes from the wreck of the royal Danish-Norwegian flagship, [[Gribshunden]]. The ship sank in 1495 while on a diplomatic mission to Sweden. Excavations in 2021 revealed concentrations of saffron threads and small "pucks" of compressed saffron powder, along with fresh ginger, cloves, and pepper. Surprisingly, the saffron retained its distinctive odour even after more than 500 years of submersion in the Baltic Sea.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Larsson |first1=Mikael |last2=Foley |first2=Brendan |date=2023-01-26 |title=The king's spice cabinet–Plant remains from Gribshunden, a 15th century royal shipwreck in the Baltic Sea |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=e0281010 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0281010 |doi-access=free |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=9879437 |pmid=36701280|bibcode=2023PLoSO..1881010L }}</ref>

The [[Essex]] town of [[Saffron Walden]], named for its new specialty crop, emerged as a prime saffron growing and trading centre in the 16th and 17th centuries but cultivation there was abandoned; saffron was re-introduced around 2013 as well as other parts of the UK (Cheshire).<ref name=BBCessex2014>{{cite news|last1=Granleese|first1=Bob|title=Interview: Meet the saffron producer: 'It seemed ridiculous that the UK didn't grow it' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/nov/16/meet-the-saffron-producer-uk |work=The Guardian|date=16 November 2013}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite news|title=Saffron spice returns to Essex after 200 years |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-essex-29943720 |work=BBC News|date=7 November 2014}}</ref>

===The Americas===
Europeans introduced saffron to the Americas when immigrant members of the [[Schwenkfelder Church]] left Europe with a trunk containing its corms. Church members had grown it widely in Europe.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=143}} By 1730, the [[Pennsylvania Dutch]] cultivated saffron throughout eastern Pennsylvania. Spanish colonies in the Caribbean bought large amounts of this new American saffron, and high demand ensured that saffron's list price on the Philadelphia commodities exchange was equal to gold.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=138}} Trade with the Caribbean later collapsed in the aftermath of the War of 1812, when many saffron-bearing merchant vessels were destroyed.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=138–139}} Yet the Pennsylvania Dutch continued to grow lesser amounts of saffron for local trade and use in their cakes, noodles, and chicken or trout dishes.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=142–146}} American saffron cultivation survives into modern times, mainly in [[Lancaster County, Pennsylvania]].{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=143}}

=== Afghanistan ===
Saffron has a long history in [[Afghanistan]], with cultivation believed to date back to before [[Alexander the Great]]'s conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Saffron in History: A Deep-Rooted Heritage of Persia and Its Cultural |url=https://saffronice.com/blogs/saffron-value-heritage/saffron-in-history-a-deep-rooted-heritage-of-persia-and-its-cultural-footprint?srsltid=AfmBOorR03CFen8AzsuA0amCITsrAq21xoH9SxnhielibibFkb0G05bf |access-date=2025-02-11 |website=Saffronice |language=en}}</ref> Due to prolonged droughts, conflict, and shifts in agricultural focus, saffron farming declined for centuries. Cultivation resumed in the early 2000s as an alternative to [[Papaver somniferum|opium poppy]] farming,<ref>{{cite AV media |url=https://www.npr.org/2016/07/06/484894669/afghan-governor-wants-government-to-control-poppy-crop |title=Afghan Governor Wants Government To Control Poppy Crop |date=6 July 2016 |medium=Radio broadcast |publisher=NPR |time=0:10 |access-date=11 February 2025 |quote=Afghanistan's poppy production… accounts for more than 91 percent of the world's heroin. |people=David Greene (host, Morning Edition), Hayatullah Hayat (Governor of Helmand Province, Afghanistan), Tom Bowman (reporter), Dianne Feinstein (U.S. Senator, Chair of the Caucus on International Narcotics Control)}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Saffron Manual for Afghanistan |url=http://www.icarda.org/RALFweb/PDFs/SaffronManualForAfghanistan.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110909224926/http://www.icarda.org/RALFweb/PDFs/SaffronManualForAfghanistan.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-09-09 }}</ref> supported by international organizations and the Afghan government.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite journal |date=2024-05-23 |title=Afghanistan Saffron and Potential for the Economy: An Overview of International Trade and Domestic Well Being |url=https://arccjournals.com/journal/agricultural-reviews/RF-290 |journal=Agricultural Reviews |language=en |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=297–303 |issn=0253-1496}}</ref> According to Afghanistan’s [[Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock|Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock]], production increased from 20 metric tons in 2022 to 46 metric tons in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Afghan Saffron Attracts Global Buyers, Secures Million-Dollar Deal |url=https://tolonews.com/business-191530#:~:text=Akhundzada%20Abdul%20Salam%20Jawad,%20spokesperson,valued%20at%20over%20$36%20million. |access-date=2025-02-11 |website=TOLOnews |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Afghanistan’s Saffron on Media {{!}} AfGOV |url=https://www.mail.gov.af/en/afghanistan%E2%80%99s-saffron-media |access-date=2025-02-11 |website=www.mail.gov.af}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Saffron in Afghanistan |url=https://oec.world/en/profile/bilateral-product/saffron/reporter/afg |access-date=2025-02-11 |website=The Observatory of Economic Complexity |language=en}}</ref> Key export markets include India, Europe, and the United States, where Afghan saffron is prized for its high quality.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-12-20 |title=ITC - Trade Impact for Good |url=https://www.intracen.org/ |access-date=2025-02-11 |website=www.intracen.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=Quality saffron poised to spice up Afghanistan’s exports (en) {{!}} ITC |url=https://www.intracen.org/es/noticias-y-eventos/noticias/quality-saffron-poised-to-spice-up-afghanistans-exports-en |access-date=2025-02-11 |website=www.intracen.org |language=es}}</ref>

Saffron cultivation contributes significantly to Afghanistan’s economy, supporting thousands of farmers, particularly women. Over 80% of the saffron workforce consists of women, who primarily handle harvesting and processing. The sector has provided employment opportunities for over 40,000 people, playing a role in agricultural sustainability and rural development.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Saffron Production Rises in Afghanistan |url=https://tolonews.com/business-192377 |access-date=2025-02-11 |website=TOLOnews |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=EFE |first=Agencia |date=2024-06-12 |title=Harvesting Gold: Afghan women cultivate hope from saffron strands - EFE |url=https://efe.com/en/other-news/2024-06-12/harvesting-gold-afghan-women-cultivate-hope-from-saffron-strands/ |access-date=2025-02-11 |website=EFE Noticias |language=en-US}}</ref>

Afghan saffron is known for its deep red color, strong aroma, and high crocin content, a compound that determines color intensity.<ref name=":3" /> It has been ranked among the highest quality saffron varieties in recent years with a 310 Crocin color quality based on ISO 3632.2 standards.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=EFE |first=Agencia |date=2024-06-12 |title=Harvesting Gold: Afghan women cultivate hope from saffron strands - EFE |url=https://efe.com/en/other-news/2024-06-12/harvesting-gold-afghan-women-cultivate-hope-from-saffron-strands/ |access-date=2025-02-11 |website=EFE Noticias |language=en-US}}</ref>