Editing Rice (section)

== Rice and climate change ==

<!--- The first section is transcribed to [[greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture]], the second section is transcribed to [[effects of climate change on agriculture]]. -->
=== Greenhouse gases from rice production ===

[[File:NP Rice Emissions18 (5687953086).jpg|thumb|Scientists measuring the greenhouse gas emissions of rice]]

In 2022, [[greenhouse gas emissions]] from rice cultivation were estimated at 5.7 billion tonnes CO2eq, representing 1.2% of total emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sectors: Rice cultivation |url=https://climatetrace.org/sectors |access-date=December 7, 2023 |website=climatetrace.org |archive-date=December 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231206062151/https://climatetrace.org/sectors |url-status=live }}</ref> Within the agriculture sector, rice produces almost half the greenhouse gas emissions from [[croplands]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Qian |first1=Haoyu |last2=Zhu |first2=Xiangchen |last3=Huang |first3=Shan |last4=Linquist |first4=Bruce |last5=Kuzyakov |first5=Yakov |last6=Wassmann |first6=Reiner |last7=Minamikawa |first7=Kazunori |last8=Martinez-Eixarch |first8=Maite |last9=Yan |first9=Xiaoyuan |last10=Zhou |first10=Feng |last11=Sander |first11=Bjoern Ole |last12=Zhang |first12=Weijian |last13=Shang |first13=Ziyin |last14=Zou |first14=Jianwen |last15=Zheng |first15=Xunhua |display-authors=5 |date=October 2023 |title=Greenhouse gas emissions and mitigation in rice agriculture |journal=[[Nature Reviews Earth & Environment]] |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages=716–732 |doi=10.1038/s43017-023-00482-1 |bibcode=2023NRvEE...4..716Q |s2cid=263197017 |quote=Rice paddies …. account for ≈48% of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from croplands.|hdl=20.500.12327/2431 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> some 30% of agricultural [[methane emissions]], and 11% of agricultural [[nitrous oxide]] emissions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gupta |first1=Khushboo |last2=Kumar |first2=Raushan |last3=Baruah |first3=Kushal Kumar |last4=Hazarika |first4=Samarendra |last5=Karmakar |first5=Susmita |last6=Bordoloi |first6=Nirmali |title=Greenhouse gas emission from rice fields: a review from Indian context |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research International |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=30551–30572 |date=June 2021 |pmid=33905059 |doi=10.1007/s11356-021-13935-1 |bibcode=2021ESPR...2830551G |s2cid=233403787 }}</ref> [[Methane]] is released from rice fields subject to long-term flooding, as this inhibits the soil from absorbing atmospheric oxygen, resulting in [[anaerobic fermentation]] of organic matter in the soil.<ref name="heinz">{{cite journal |last1=Neue |first1=Heinz-Ulrich |title=Methane Emission from Rice Fields |journal=[[BioScience]] |date=1993 |volume=43 |issue=7 |pages=466–474 |doi=10.2307/1311906 |jstor=1311906 }}</ref> Emissions can be limited by planting new varieties, not flooding continuously, and removing straw.<ref name="Qian Zhu Huang 2023">{{Cite journal |last1=Qian |first1=Haoyu |last2=Zhu |first2=Xiangchen |last3=Huang |first3=Shan |last4=Linquist |first4=Bruce |last5=Kuzyakov |first5=Yakov |last6=Wassmann |first6=Reiner |last7=Minamikawa |first7=Kazunori |last8=Martinez-Eixarch |first8=Maite |last9=Yan |first9=Xiaoyuan |last10=Zhou |first10=Feng |last11=Sander |first11=Bjoern Ole |last12=Zhang |first12=Weijian |last13=Shang |first13=Ziyin |last14=Zou |first14=Jianwen |last15=Zheng |first15=Xunhua |display-authors=5 |date=October 2023 |title=Greenhouse gas emissions and mitigation in rice agriculture |journal=Nature Reviews Earth & Environment |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages=716–732 |doi=10.1038/s43017-023-00482-1 |bibcode=2023NRvEE...4..716Q |s2cid=263197017 |hdl=20.500.12327/2431 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

It is possible to cut methane emissions in rice cultivation by improved water management, combining dry seeding and one drawdown, or executing [[alternate wetting and drying|a sequence of wetting and drying]]. This results in emission reductions of up to 90% compared to full flooding and even increased yields.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Searchinger |first1=Tim |last2=Adhya |first2=Tapan K. |year=2014 |title=Wetting and Drying: Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Saving Water from Rice Production |url=https://www.wri.org/research/wetting-and-drying-reducing-greenhouse-gas-emissions-and-saving-water-rice-production |publisher=[[World Resources Institute]] |access-date=May 3, 2024 |archive-date=June 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230619223001/https://www.wri.org/research/wetting-and-drying-reducing-greenhouse-gas-emissions-and-saving-water-rice-production |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Effects of climate change on rice production ===

Predictions of climate change's effects on rice cultivation vary. Global rice yield has been projected to decrease by around 3.2% with each 1&nbsp;°C increase in global average temperature<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhao |first1=Chuang |last2=Liu |first2=Bing |last3=Piao |first3=Shilong |last4=Wang |first4=Xuhui |last5=Lobell |first5=David B. |last6=Huang |first6=Yao |last7=Huang |first7=Mengtian |last8=Yao |first8=Yitong |last9=Bassu |first9=Simona |last10=Ciais |first10=Philippe |last11=Durand |first11=Jean-Louis |last12=Elliott |first12=Joshua |last13=Ewert |first13=Frank |last14=Janssens |first14=Ivan A. |last15=Li |first15=Tao |display-authors=5 |date=August 29, 2017 |title=Temperature increase reduces global yields of major crops in four independent estimates |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=114 |issue=35 |pages=9326–9331 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1701762114 |doi-access=free |pmc=5584412 |pmid=28811375 |bibcode=2017PNAS..114.9326Z }}</ref> while another study predicts global rice cultivation will increase initially, plateauing at about 3&nbsp;°C warming (2091–2100 relative to 1850–1900).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Iizumi |first1=Toshichika |last2=Furuya |first2=Jun |last3=Shen |first3=Zhihong |last4=Kim |first4=Wonsik |last5=Okada |first5=Masashi |last6=Fujimori |first6=Shinichiro |last7=Hasegawa |first7=Tomoko |last8=Nishimori |first8=Motoki |display-authors=5 |date=August 10, 2017 |title=Responses of crop yield growth to global temperature and socioeconomic changes |journal=[[Scientific Reports]] |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=7800 |doi=10.1038/s41598-017-08214-4 |pmid=28798370 |pmc=5552729 |bibcode=2017NatSR...7.7800I}}</ref><!--<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1017/9781009157988.007 |chapter=Food security |title=Climate Change and Land |date=2022 |pages=437–550 |isbn=978-1-009-15798-8 |author=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change }}</ref>-->

The impacts of climate change on rice cultivation vary across geographic location and socioeconomic context. For example, rising temperatures and decreasing solar radiation during the later years of the 20th century decreased rice yield by between 10% and 20% across 200 farms in seven Asian countries. This may have been caused by increased night-time respiration.<ref name="Welch Vincent Auffhammer Moya 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Welch |first1=Jarrod R. |last2=Vincent |first2=Jeffrey R. |last3=Auffhammer |first3=Maximilian |last4=Moya |first4=Piedad F. |last5=Dobermann |first5=Achim |last6=Dawe |first6=David |title=Rice yields in tropical/subtropical Asia exhibit large but opposing sensitivities to minimum and maximum temperatures |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=107 |issue=33 |date=August 9, 2010 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1001222107 |pages=14562–14567 |pmid=20696908 |pmc=2930450 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Black 2010">{{cite web |last=Black |first=Richard |date=August 9, 2010 |title=Rice yields falling under global warming |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-10918591 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180405034821/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-10918591 |archive-date=April 5, 2018 |access-date=August 9, 2010 |work=[[BBC News]]: Science & Environment}}</ref> IRRI has predicted that Asian rice yields will fall by some 20% per 1°C rise in global mean temperature. Further, rice is unable to yield grain if the flowers experience a temperature of 35°C or more for over one hour, so the crop would be lost under these conditions.<ref name="Singh 2016">{{cite journal |last=Singh |first=S.K. |date=2016 |title=Climate Change: Impact on Indian Agriculture & its Mitigation |journal=Journal of Basic and Applied Engineering Research |volume=3 |issue=10 |pages=857–859}}</ref><ref name="Rao Patil 2017">{{cite book |last1=Rao |first1=Prakash |last2=Patil |first2=Y. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=st52DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA330 |title=Reconsidering the Impact of Climate Change on Global Water Supply, Use, and Management |publisher=IGI Global |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-5225-1047-5 |page=330}}</ref>

In the [[Po Valley]] in Italy, the [[Arborio rice|arborio]] and [[carnaroli]] risotto rice varieties have suffered poor harvests through drought in the 21st century. The {{ill|Ente Nazionale Risi|it}} <!--(Italian rice research institute)--> is developing drought-resistant varieties; its ''nuovo prometeo'' variety has deep roots that enable it to tolerate drought, but is not suitable for risotto.<ref name="Spaggiari 2024">{{cite news |last=Spaggiari |first=Ottavia |title=Risotto crisis: the fight to save Italy's beloved dish from extinction |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2024/feb/29/risotto-crisis-the-fight-to-save-italys-beloved-dish-from-extinction-aoe |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=February 29, 2024}}</ref>

{{Anchor|Pests}}