Editing Pythagoras (section)

== Later influence in antiquity ==
=== On Greek philosophy ===
Sizeable Pythagorean communities existed in Magna Graecia, [[Phlius]], and [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] during the early fourth century BC.{{sfnp|Kahn|2001|pages=48–49}} Around the same time, the Pythagorean philosopher [[Archytas]] was highly influential on the politics of the city of [[Taranto|Tarentum]] in Magna Graecia.{{sfnp|Kahn|2001|page=39}} According to later tradition, Archytas was elected as ''[[strategos]]'' ("general") seven times, even though others were prohibited from serving more than a year.{{sfnp|Kahn|2001|page=39}} Archytas was also a renowned mathematician and musician.{{sfnp|Kahn|2001|pages=39–43}} He was a close friend of Plato{{sfnp|Kahn|2001|pages=39–40}} and he is quoted in Plato's ''Republic''.{{sfnp|Kahn|2001|pages=40, 44–45}}{{sfnp|Plato, Republic|loc=VII, 530d}} Aristotle states that the philosophy of Plato was heavily dependent on the teachings of the Pythagoreans.{{sfnp|Aristot. Met. 1|loc=987a}}{{sfnp|Kahn|2001|page=1}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Numbers, Ontologically Speaking: Plato on Numerosity |url=https://philpapers.org/versions/FLONOS |access-date=2025-01-21 |website=philpapers.org |language=en}}</ref> Cicero repeats this statement, remarking that ''Platonem ferunt didicisse Pythagorea omnia'' ("They say Plato learned all things Pythagorean").<ref>Tusc. Disput. 1.17.39.</ref> According to [[Charles H. Kahn]], Plato's middle dialogues, including ''[[Meno]]'', ''[[Phaedo]]'', and ''[[Republic (Plato)|The Republic]]'', have a strong "Pythagorean coloring",{{sfnp|Kahn|2001|page=55}} and his last few dialogues (particularly ''[[Philebus]]'' and ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]''){{sfnp|Kahn|2001|pages=55–62}} are extremely Pythagorean in character.{{sfnp|Kahn|2001|pages=55–62}}

The poet [[Heraclitus of Ephesus]] ({{fl.|{{circa|500|lk=no}}|lk=no}}&nbsp;BC), who was born a few miles across the sea from Samos and may have lived within Pythagoras's lifetime,{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|page=13}} mocked Pythagoras as a clever charlatan,{{sfnp|Kahn|2001|page=2}}{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|page=13}} remarking that "Pythagoras, son of Mnesarchus, practiced inquiry more than any other man, and selecting from these writings he manufactured a wisdom for himself—much learning, artful knavery."{{sfnp|Kahn|2001|page=2}}{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|page=13}} [[Alcmaeon of Croton]] ({{fl.|{{c.|450|lk=no}}|lk=yes}}&nbsp;BC), a doctor who lived in Croton at around the same time Pythagoras lived there,{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|page=12}} incorporates many Pythagorean teachings into his writings{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|pages=12–13}} and alludes to having possibly known Pythagoras personally.{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|pages=12–13}} The Greek poets [[Ion of Chios]] ({{circa|480|421|lk=no}}&nbsp;BC) and [[Empedocles of Acragas]] ({{circa|493|432|lk=no}}&nbsp;BC) both express admiration for Pythagoras in their poems.{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|pages=14–15}}

According to [[R. M. Hare]], Plato's ''[[Republic (Plato)|Republic]]'' may be partially based on the "tightly organised community of like-minded thinkers" established by Pythagoras at Croton.{{sfnp|Hare|1999|pages=117–119}} Additionally, Plato may have borrowed from Pythagoras the idea that mathematics and abstract thought are a secure basis for philosophy, science, and morality.{{sfnp|Hare|1999|pages=117–119}} Plato and Pythagoras shared a "mystical approach to the [[Soul (spirit)|soul]] and its place in the material world"{{sfnp|Hare|1999|pages=117–119}} and both were probably influenced by [[Orphicism|Orphism]].{{sfnp|Hare|1999|pages=117–119}} The historian of philosophy [[Frederick Copleston]] states that Plato probably borrowed [[Plato's tripartite theory of soul|his tripartite theory of the soul]] from the Pythagoreans.{{sfnp|Copleston|2003|page=37}}

A revival of Pythagorean teachings occurred in the first century BC{{sfnp|Riedweg|2005|pages=123–124}} when [[Middle Platonism|Middle Platonist]] philosophers such as [[Eudorus of Alexandria|Eudorus]] and [[Philo of Alexandria]] hailed the rise of a "new" Pythagoreanism in [[Alexandria]].{{sfnp|Riedweg|2005|page=124}} At around the same time, [[Neopythagoreanism]] became prominent.{{sfnp|Riedweg|2005|pages=125–126}} The first-century AD philosopher [[Apollonius of Tyana]] sought to emulate Pythagoras and live by Pythagorean teachings.{{sfnp|Riedweg|2005|page=125}} The later first-century Neopythagorean philosopher [[Moderatus of Gades]] expanded on Pythagorean number philosophy{{sfnp|Riedweg|2005|page=125}} and probably understood the soul as a "kind of mathematical harmony".{{sfnp|Riedweg|2005|page=125}} The Neopythagorean mathematician and musicologist [[Nicomachus]] likewise expanded on Pythagorean numerology and music theory.{{sfnp|Riedweg|2005|pages=125–126}} [[Numenius of Apamea]] interpreted Plato's teachings in light of Pythagorean doctrines.{{sfnp|Riedweg|2005|pages=126–127}}

=== On art and architecture ===
[[File:Giovanni Paolo Panini - Interior of the Pantheon, Rome - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|alt=Painting showing a massive room with a high, domed ceiling. A hole is open at the top of the dome. Columns and statues line the walls.|[[Hadrian]]'s [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]] in [[Rome]], depicted in this eighteenth-century painting by [[Giovanni Paolo Panini]], was built according to Pythagorean teachings.{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|pages=166–181}}]]

The oldest known building designed according to Pythagorean teachings is the [[Porta Maggiore Basilica]],{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|page=154}} a subterranean basilica which was built during the reign of the Roman emperor [[Nero]] as a secret place of worship for Pythagoreans.{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|pages=154–156}} The basilica was built underground because of the Pythagorean emphasis on secrecy{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|pages=157–158}} and also because of the legend that Pythagoras had sequestered himself in a cave on Samos.{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|page=158}} The basilica's apse is in the east and its atrium in the west out of respect for the rising sun.{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|pages=158–159}} It has a narrow entrance leading to a small pool where the initiates could purify themselves.{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|page=159}} The building is also designed according to Pythagorean numerology,{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|pages=159–161}} with each table in the sanctuary providing seats for seven people.{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|page=161}} Three aisles lead to a single altar, symbolizing the three parts of the soul approaching the unity of Apollo.{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|page=161}} The apse depicts a scene of the poet [[Sappho]] leaping off the [[Lefkada|Leucadian cliffs]], clutching her lyre to her breast, while Apollo stands beneath her, extending his right hand in a gesture of protection,{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|page=162}} symbolizing Pythagorean teachings about the immortality of the soul.{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|page=162}} The interior of the sanctuary is almost entirely white because the color white was regarded by Pythagoreans as sacred.{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|pages=162–164}}

The emperor [[Hadrian]]'s [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]] in [[Rome]] was also built based on Pythagorean numerology.{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|pages=166–181}} The temple's circular plan, central axis, hemispherical [[dome]], and alignment with the four cardinal directions symbolize Pythagorean views on the order of the universe.{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|pages=167–168}} The single [[Oculus (architecture)|oculus]] at the top of the dome symbolizes the monad and the sun-god Apollo.{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|page=168}} The twenty-eight ribs extending from the oculus symbolize the moon, because twenty-eight was the same number of months on the Pythagorean lunar calendar.{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|pages=169–170}} The five coffered rings beneath the ribs represent the marriage of the sun and moon.{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|pages=170–172}}

=== In early Christianity ===
Many early Christians had a deep respect for Pythagoras.{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|pages=57–65}} [[Eusebius]] ({{circa|260|340|lk=no}}&nbsp;AD), bishop of [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]], praises Pythagoras in his ''Against Hierokles'' for his rule of silence, his frugality, his "extraordinary" morality, and his wise teachings.{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|page=57}} In another work, Eusebius compares Pythagoras to [[Moses]].{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|page=57}} In one of his letters, the [[Church Fathers|Church Father]] [[Jerome]] ({{circa|347|420|lk=no}}&nbsp;AD) praises Pythagoras for his wisdom{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|page=57}} and, in another letter, he credits Pythagoras for his belief in the immortality of the soul, which he suggests Christians inherited from him.{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|pages=57–58}} [[Augustine of Hippo]] (354–430 AD) rejected Pythagoras's teaching of metempsychosis without explicitly naming him, but otherwise expressed admiration for him.{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|pages=58–59}} In ''[[On the Trinity]]'', Augustine lauds the fact that Pythagoras was humble enough to call himself a ''philosophos'' or "lover of wisdom" rather than a "sage".{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|page=59}} In another passage, Augustine defends Pythagoras's reputation, arguing that Pythagoras certainly never taught the doctrine of metempsychosis.{{sfnp|Joost-Gaugier|2006|page=59}}