Editing Progesterone (section)

===Other effects===
* Progesterone also has a role in skin elasticity and bone strength, in [[respiration (physiology)|respiration]], in nerve tissue and in [[female sexuality]], and the presence of progesterone receptors in certain muscle and fat tissue may hint at a role in [[sexual dimorphism|sexually dimorphic]] proportions of those.<ref name="medicinalchem">{{cite book |title= Medicinal Chemistry| vauthors = Sriram D |year=2007 |publisher=Dorling Kindersley India Pvt. Ltd.|location= New Delhi| isbn= 978-81-317-0031-0 |page=432}}<!--this seems to have copied from WP?, see [[Special:Diff/1252663285|Wikipedia:Copyright_problems/2024_October_22]]--></ref>
* During pregnancy, progesterone is said to decrease uterine irritability.<ref name="Blackburn2014">{{cite book | vauthors = Blackburn S | title = Maternal, Fetal, & Neonatal Physiology | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=RNLsAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA92|date=14 April 2014|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-0-323-29296-2|pages=92–}}</ref>
* During pregnancy, progesterone helps to suppress immune responses of the mother to fetal antigens, which prevents rejection of the fetus.<ref name="Blackburn2014" />
* Progesterone raises [[epidermal growth factor-1]] (EGF-1) levels, a factor often used to induce proliferation, and used to sustain cultures, of [[stem cell]]s.<ref name="pmid17074804">{{cite journal | vauthors = Faivre EJ, Lange CA | title = Progesterone receptors upregulate Wnt-1 to induce epidermal growth factor receptor transactivation and c-Src-dependent sustained activation of Erk1/2 mitogen-activated protein kinase in breast cancer cells | journal = Molecular and Cellular Biology | volume = 27 | issue = 2 | pages = 466–480 | date = January 2007 | pmid = 17074804 | pmc = 1800800 | doi = 10.1128/MCB.01539-06 }}</ref>
* Progesterone increases core temperature (thermogenic function) during ovulation.<ref name="GeorgiaPhysiology">{{cite book| title= Essentials of Human Physiology| vauthors = Nosek TM | chapter=Section 5/5ch9/s5ch9_13 |chapter-url=http://humanphysiology.tuars.com/program/section5/5ch9/s5ch9_13.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324124828/http://humanphysiology.tuars.com/program/section5/5ch9/s5ch9_13.htm|archive-date=24 March 2016}}</ref><ref name="Rothchild-1969">{{Citation|vauthors=Rothchild I|title=The Physiologic Basis for the Temperature Raising Effect of Progesterone|date=1969|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-1782-1_49|work=Metabolic Effects of Gonadal Hormones and Contraceptive Steroids|pages=668–675|veditors=Salhanick HA, Kipnis DM, Wiele RL|place=Boston, MA|publisher=Springer US|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-1782-1_49|isbn=978-1-4684-1782-1|access-date=22 March 2021|url-access=subscription|archive-date=29 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829011027/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-1-4684-1782-1_49|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Progesterone reduces [[spasm]] and relaxes [[smooth muscle]]. [[Bronchi]] are widened and [[mucus]] regulated. (PRs are widely present in [[mucous membrane|submucosal tissue]].){{cn|date=February 2025}}
* Progesterone acts as an [[inflammation|antiinflammatory]] agent and regulates the [[immune response]].{{cn|date=February 2025}}
* Progesterone reduces [[gall-bladder]] activity.<ref name="pmid3184927">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hould FS, Fried GM, Fazekas AG, Tremblay S, Mersereau WA | title = Progesterone receptors regulate gallbladder motility | journal = The Journal of Surgical Research | volume = 45 | issue = 6 | pages = 505–512 | date = December 1988 | pmid = 3184927 | doi = 10.1016/0022-4804(88)90137-0 }}</ref>
* Progesterone normalizes [[blood]] clotting and vascular tone, [[zinc]] and [[copper]] levels, [[cell (biology)|cell]] [[oxygen]] levels, and use of fat stores for energy.{{cn|date=February 2025}}
* Progesterone may affect gum health, increasing risk of gingivitis (gum inflammation).<ref name="WebMD-Hormones-Oral-Health">{{cite web|url=http://www.webmd.com/oral-health/hormones-oral-health|title=Hormones and Oral Health|website=WebMD|access-date=22 July 2013|archive-date=18 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160618171445/http://www.webmd.com/oral-health/hormones-oral-health|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Progesterone appears to prevent [[endometrial cancer]] (involving the uterine lining) by regulating the effects of estrogen.
* Progesterone plays an important role in the signaling of insulin release and pancreatic function, and may affect the susceptibility to diabetes or gestational diabetes.<ref name="pmid12438645">{{cite journal | vauthors = Picard F, Wanatabe M, Schoonjans K, Lydon J, O'Malley BW, Auwerx J | title = Progesterone receptor knockout mice have an improved glucose homeostasis secondary to beta -cell proliferation | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 99 | issue = 24 | pages = 15644–15648 | date = November 2002 | pmid = 12438645 | pmc = 137770 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.202612199 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="pmid12591170">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brănişteanu DD, Mathieu C | title = Progesterone in gestational diabetes mellitus: guilty or not guilty? | journal = Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 14 | issue = 2 | pages = 54–56 | date = March 2003 | pmid = 12591170 | doi = 10.1016/S1043-2760(03)00003-1 | s2cid = 38209977 }}</ref>
* Progesterone levels in the blood were found to be lower in those who had higher weight and higher BMI among those who became pregnant through in vitro fertilization.<ref name="pmid34278354">{{cite journal | vauthors = Whynott RM, Summers KM, Jakubiak M, Van Voorhis BJ, Mejia RB | title = The effect of weight and body mass index on serum progesterone values and live birth rate in cryopreserved in vitro fertilization cycles | journal = F&S Reports | volume = 2 | issue = 2 | pages = 195–200 | date = June 2021 | pmid = 34278354 | pmc = 8267385 | doi = 10.1016/j.xfre.2021.02.005 }}</ref>
* Current data shows that micronized progesterone, which is chemically identical to the progesterone produced in people's bodies, in combination with estrogen in menopausal hormone therapy does not seem to have significant effects on venous thromboembolism (blood clots in veins) and ischemic stroke (lack of blood flow to the brain due to blockage of a blood vessel that supplies the brain). However, more studies need to be conducted to see whether or not micronized progesterone alone or in combined menopausal hormone therapy changes the risk of myocardial infarctions (heart attacks).<ref name="pmid35112635">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kaemmle LM, Stadler A, Janka H, von Wolff M, Stute P | title = The impact of micronized progesterone on cardiovascular events - a systematic review | journal = Climacteric | volume = 25 | issue = 4 | pages = 327–336 | date = August 2022 | pmid = 35112635 | doi = 10.1080/13697137.2021.2022644 | s2cid = 246487187 }}</ref>
* There have not been any studies done yet on the effects of micronized progesterone on hair loss due to menopause.<ref name="pmid33527841">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gasser S, Heidemeyer K, von Wolff M, Stute P | title = Impact of progesterone on skin and hair in menopause - a comprehensive review | journal = Climacteric | volume = 24 | issue = 3 | pages = 229–235 | date = June 2021 | pmid = 33527841 | doi = 10.1080/13697137.2020.1838476 | s2cid = 231757325 }}</ref>
* Despite suggestions for using hormone therapy to prevent loss of muscle mass in post-menopausal individuals (50 and older), menopausal hormone therapy involving either estrogen alone or estrogen and progesterone has not been found to preserve muscle mass.<ref name="pmid31461147">{{cite journal | vauthors = Javed AA, Mayhew AJ, Shea AK, Raina P | title = Association Between Hormone Therapy and Muscle Mass in Postmenopausal Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis | journal = JAMA Network Open | volume = 2 | issue = 8 | pages = e1910154 | date = August 2019 | pmid = 31461147 | pmc = 6716293 | doi = 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.10154 }}</ref> Menopausal hormone therapy also does not result in body weight reduction, BMI reduction, or change in glucose metabolism.<ref name="pmid30477366">{{cite journal | vauthors = Coquoz A, Gruetter C, Stute P | title = Impact of micronized progesterone on body weight, body mass index, and glucose metabolism: a systematic review | journal = Climacteric | volume = 22 | issue = 2 | pages = 148–161 | date = April 2019 | pmid = 30477366 | doi = 10.1080/13697137.2018.1514003 | s2cid = 53782622 }}</ref>