Editing Pope Adrian IV (section)

==Acts as pope==
[[File:K.. MOM-Bilddateien. ~StiASG2jpgweb. ~StiASG 1155~11559999 TTT2(II)-Nr3 r.jpg|thumb|upright|Charter of Pope Adrian IV, also beginning ''Adrianus eps servus servorum dei'', dated the Lateran, 30 March 1156. Note the Papal [[monogram]], ''[[Bene Valete]]'', bottom-right-hand corner.{{sfn|Charter|2020}}|alt=colour scan of one of Adrian's charters]]
In 1155 the [[Republic of Genoa|city state of Genoa]] approached Adrian and sought him to help them defend their trading rights in the East.{{sfn|Balard|2007|p=41}}{{refn|Whilst at the same time making overtures to the Manuel I to formalise a trading treaty with Genoa.{{sfn|Balard|2007|p=41}}|group=note}} The same year Adrian issued the [[decretal]] ''[[Dignum est]]'' which allowed serfs to marry without having to obtain their lord's permission as had traditionally been the case. Adrian's reasoning was that a [[sacrament]] outweighed a feudal due and that no Christian had the right to stand in the way of another's receiving of a sacrament. This was to become the definitive statement of marriage as a sacrament,{{sfn|Reynolds|2016|pp=40, 451}} and remained such until the recodification of [[1917 Code of Canon Law|Canon Law in 1917]].{{sfn|Duggan|2003b|p=190}} The same year, Adrian consecrated the [[Bishop of Gradisca|Bishop of Grado]], [[Enrico Dandolo (patriarch)|Enrico Dandolo]] as [[Dalmatia|Primate of Dalmatia]].{{sfn|Madden|2007|p=36}} Two years later, Adrian granted him primacy over all the Venetian churches in the Eastern Empire.{{sfn|Madden|2018|p=63}} This has been described as "a remarkable move": The historian [[Thomas F. Madden]] notes that not only was this the first occasion on which one metropolitan had been given jurisdiction over another, but in doing so Adrian had created the equivalent of an Eastern [[Patriarch]] in the west.{{sfn|Madden|2012|p=80}} He also confirmed the degradation of [[Baume Abbey]] imposed by Eugenius for its failure to obey a Papal legate.{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=325 n.48}}

Adrian confirmed the prerogatives of the [[Knights Templar]] and documented in the ''[[Liber Censuum]]''.{{sfn|Bellomo|2008|p=268}} He also enforced the rules against unfree ecclesiastical elections and condemned ecclesiastics who used physical force against the church.{{sfn|Duggan|2003b|p=191}} Perhaps reflecting his earlier career, he also promulgated several bulls in favour of the [[Austin canon]]s. Again, he particularly focussed on houses of his personal association; St Ruf, for example, received at least 10 bulls of privilege. In one of these, he expressed a "special bond of affection" for his old abbey, which he said had been like a mother to him.{{sfn|Egger|2003|p=27}}

Adrian argued that, in the troubled succession to [[Alfonso the Battler|Alfonso I of Aragon]], even though Alfonso had legally nominated an heir—his brother—because he had not had a son, his brother was not a direct heir to the Kingdom.{{sfn|Martindale|1989|p=27}} This was the context for the projected crusade into Spain as suggested by the Kings of England and France, which Adrian rejected. He did, however, welcome their new friendship.{{sfn|Smith|2003|p=39}}

It was probably Adrian who [[canonised]] [[Sigfrid of Sweden]] around 1158, thus making Sigfrid Sweden's [[apostle]].{{sfn|Beck|1940|p=384}} Robinson notes that Adrian's fascination with Scandinavia continued into his pontificate, particularly in his efforts to create a Swedish metropolis. He was also keen to defend its church against lay encroachment.{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=349}} In January 1157 Archbishop Eskil{{refn|Eskil was a personal friend of [[Bernard of Clairvaux]] and had been responsible for originally introducing [[monasticism]] to Denmark and Sweden.{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=350}}|group=note}} personally presented a petition to Adrian in Rome, requesting protection from [[Sweyn III of Denmark|King Swein of Denmark]].{{refn|Swein was also a vassal of the Holy Roman Emperor.{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=350}}|group=note}} Adrian both appointed the [[Bishop of Lund]] his Legate in the region{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=350}} and recognised him as [[primate (bishop)|primate]] over both Sweden and Denmark.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=203}}{{refn|Eventually the three provinces agreed on Uppsala as the centre of the proposed metropolitan, and Alexander III conferred it in 1164.{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=349}}|group=note}}

Other cardinalate appointments of Adrian's included that of Alberto di Morra in 1156. Di Morra, also a canon regular like Adrian, later reigned briefly as [[Pope Gregory VIII]] in 1187. Boso, already papal chamberlain since 1154, was appointed the same year. Adrian also elevated one Walter to the Pope's own Cardinal Bishopric of Albano; Walter is thought to have been an Englishman—possible also from St Ruf—but very little record of his career has survived. In contrast, his appointment of Raymond des Arénes in 1158 was of a well-known lawyer with an established career under Adrian's predecessors.{{sfn|Duggan|2003b|pp=182–183}} These were all worthy additions to the Curial office, argues Duggan, being all men of "experience, academic learning and administrative and diplomatic skill", which in turn reflects the wisdom of the appointer.{{sfn|Duggan|2003b|p=183}} He may have received the hermit and later saint [[Silvester of Troina]], whose only recorded journey was from Sicily to Rome during Adrian's pontificate.{{sfn|Oldfield|2014|p=131}}

Adrian continued the reform of the Papacy's finances that had begun under his predecessor in an attempt at boosting revenue,{{sfn|Collins|2009|p=238}}{{refn|This process involved Boso, as Chamberlain examining old rent books from the archives in the hope of discovering lost Papal dues,{{sfn|Collins|2009|p=238}} and Adrian also ordered the keeping of more precise fiscal records,{{sfn|Whalen|2014|p=125}} which became the nucleus of the ''[[Liber Censuum]]''.{{sfn|Duggan|2003b|p=182}}|group=note}} although he regularly had to resort to requesting large loans from major noble families such as the Corsi and [[Frangipane]].{{sfn|Wickham|2015|pp=164, 165 n.170}}{{refn|For example, a loan from Pietro Frangipane in 1158 of 1,000 [[Mark (currency)|marks]], for which a number of Papal castles had been given as security, was not paid off until 1190.{{sfn|Wickham|2015|p=228}}|group=note}} His appointment of Boso as Chamberlain—or camerarius—of the Papal patrimony did much to improve the Papacy's finances by way of streamlining its financial bureaucracy.{{sfn|Blumenthal|2004|p=23}} However, he also recognised the expense that the Papay was put to defending its own, commenting ''nemo potest sine stipendiis militare'', or "no-one can make war without pay".{{sfn|Morris|1989|p=214}} Adrian also consolidated the Papacy's position as the feudal lord of the regional baronage;{{sfn|Wickham|2015|p=54}} indeed, his success in doing so has been described as "never less than impressive".{{sfn|Bolton|2003a|p=178}} In 1157, for example, Adrian made [[Oddone Frangipane]] donate his castle to him, which Adrian then granted back to Oddone in fee.{{sfn|Wickham|2015|p=54}}{{refn|Wickhma argues this was Papal policy: "aristocrats in Rome had to resign themselves to having possession of their lands, not full property".{{sfn|Wickham|2015|p=54}}|group=note}} occasionally Adrian simply purchased castles and lordships for the papacy, as he did [[Corchiano]].{{sfn|Partner|1972|p=194}} Adrian received the personal oaths of fealty of a number of north-Roman nobles, thus making them vassals of St Peter.{{sfn|Whalen|2014|p=125}} In 1158, for example, for fighting in the ''[[Reconquista]]''—"subduing the barbarous peoples and the savage nations, that is, the fury of the Saracens"—Ramon Berenguer, Count of Barcelona was accepted "under St Peter's and our protection".{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=348}} In 1159 Adrian ratified an agreement with the civic leadership of [[Ostia (Rome)|Ostia]]—an otherwise semi-independent town—agreed to pay the Pope an annual feudal rent for his lordship.{{sfn|Wickham|2015|p=106}} Adrian's vassals, and their family and vassals, took oaths of fealty to the Pope, and in doing so the vassal absolved his own vassals of their oaths to him. All now became direct vassals of the Papacy.{{sfn|Bolton|2003b|pp=178–179}} One of Adrian's greatest achievements, believed Boso, was acquiring [[Orvieto]] as a Papal fief, because this city had "for a very long time withdrawn itself from the jurisdiction of St Peter"{{sfn|Bolton|Duggan|2003|pp=230–231}}{{sfn|Partner|1972|p=194}} Adrian, in 1156, was the first Pope to enter Orvieto, emphasised Boso, and to "have any temporal power there".{{sfn|Partner|1972|p=194}}

Adrian appears to have been an advocate of the [[crusade]] since his abbacy of St Ruf,{{sfn|Smith|2003|p=32}} and was equally keen to rekindle the crusading spirit among Christian rulers as Pope. The [[Second Crusade|most recent crusade]] had ended, poorly, in 1150, but Adrian made what has been called a "novel approach" to launching a new one. In 1157 he announced that, whereas previously [[indulgence]]s were available to those who fought in the East, from now on they would be also available to those who supported the war effort without necessarily campaigning abroad. This opened the benefits of crusading up to those who supplied money, men or [[materiel]]. However, his proposal, novel or otherwise, appears to have met with little interest, and no further crusading was to take place until 1189.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=472–473}}{{sfn|Tyerman|1998|pp=14–15}} He did not, however, approve of Crusading within Christendom itself, as when the French and English kings both proposed a crusade into [[Muslim Spain]], he urged caution upon them. In his January 1159{{sfn|Smith|2003|p=39}} letter ''Satis laudabiliter'', while flattering both kings diplomatically, he advised that "it would seem to be neither wise nor safe to enter a foreign land without first seeking the advice of the princes and people of the area".{{sfn|Duggan|2003b|p=191}} Indeed, Adrian reminded Henry and Louis of the consequences of badly planned and mismanaged crusades by reference to the Second Crusade—of which Louis had been a leader—reminding him that, there too, Louis had invaded "without consulting the people of the area".{{sfn|Duggan|2003b|p=192}}{{refn|He did however defer rather than deny the request for a crusade, as he intimated that, if his conditions were met—i.e. that western princes were invited to do so—he would then countenance their crusade.{{sfn|Duggan|2003b|p=192}}|group=note}}

Adrian also undertook a building program throughout Rome and the patrimony, although Duggan notes that the shortness of his pontificate reduced the amount of his work that remains visible in the 21st century. The work ranged from the restoration of public buildings and spaces to the city's physical defence.{{sfn|Duggan|2003b|p=201}} Boso reported how, for example, "in the church of St Peter [Adrian] richly restored the roof of St. Processo which he found collapsed", while in the Lateran, he "caused to be made a very necessary and extremely large cistern".{{sfn|Bolton|Duggan|2003|pp=230–231}} Due to the peripatetic nature of his pontificate he also built a large number of summer palaces across the patrimony, including at [[Segni]], Ferentino, [[Alatri]], [[Anagni]] and [[Rieti]].{{sfn|Bolton|2003b|p=166}} Much of this fortification and building work—particularly in the vicinity of Rome—was for the protection of pilgrims, the safety of whom Adrian was both spiritually and physically reliable for.{{sfn|Partner|1972|pp=193–194}}

Although his pontificate was a relatively short one—four years, six months and 28 days—he spent nearly half that time outside of Rome, either in the enclave of Benevento or journeying around the Papal States and patrimony. Particularly in the early years of the reign, his travels reflected the political context, consisting of "short bursts" as he sought to either meet or avoid the Emperor or William of Sicily as the situation required.{{sfn|Bolton|2003b|p=164}}