Editing Mark Antony (section)

====Roman–Parthian relations====
[[File:Parthia 001ad.jpg|thumb|450px|A map of the [[Parthian Empire]] and [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Kingdom of Armenia]]. Both states shared their western borders along the Euphrates River with Rome.]]

The rise of the [[Parthian Empire]] in the 3rd century BC and Rome's expansion into the Eastern Mediterranean during the 2nd century BC brought the two powers into direct contact, causing centuries of tumultuous and strained relations. Though periods of peace developed cultural and commercial exchanges, war was a constant threat. Influence over the [[buffer state]] of the [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Kingdom of Armenia]], located to the north-east of [[Roman Syria]], was often a central issue in the Roman-Parthian conflict. In 95 BC, [[Tigranes the Great]], a Parthian ally, became king. Tigranes would later aid [[Mithridatic Wars|Mithradates of Pontus against Rome]] before being decisively defeated by [[Pompey]] in 66 BC.<ref>Scullard, 1984, p. 106</ref> Thereafter, with his son [[Artavasdes II of Armenia|Artavasdes]] in Rome as a hostage, Tigranes would rule Armenia as an ally of Rome until his death in 55 BC. Rome then released Artavasdes, who succeeded his father as king.

In 53 BC, Rome's governor of Syria, [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]], led an expedition across the [[Euphrates]] River into Parthian territory to confront the Parthian Shah [[Orodes II]]. Artavasdes II offered Crassus the aid of nearly forty thousand troops to assist his Parthian expedition on the condition that Crassus invade through Armenia as the safer route.<ref>Plutarch. ''Life of Crassus''. [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Crassus*.html 19.1–3] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200410020040/http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Crassus*.html |date=10 April 2020 }}.</ref> Crassus refused, choosing instead the more direct route by crossing the Euphrates directly into desert Parthian territory. Crassus' actions proved disastrous as his army was defeated at the [[Battle of Carrhae]] by a numerically inferior Parthian force. Crassus' defeat forced Armenia to shift its loyalty to Parthia, with Artavasdes II's sister marrying Orodes' son and heir [[Pacorus I of Parthia|Pacorus]].<ref>[[Plutarch]], ''Crassus'' 19; 22; 33.</ref>

In early 44 BC, Julius Caesar announced his intentions to invade Parthia and restore Roman power in the East. His reasons were to punish the Parthians for assisting Pompey in the [[Caesar's Civil War|recent civil war]], to avenge Crassus' defeat at Carrhae, and especially to match the glory of [[Alexander the Great]] for himself.<ref>Hinard, 2000, p. 820</ref> Before Caesar could launch his campaign, however, he was assassinated. As part of the compromise between Antony and the Republicans to restore order following Caesar's murder, [[Publius Cornelius Dolabella (consul 44 BC)|Publius Cornelius Dolabella]] was assigned the governorship of Syria and command over Caesar's planned Parthian campaign. The compromise did not hold, however, and the republicans were forced to flee to the East. The republicans directed [[Quintus Labienus]] to attract the Parthians to their side in the [[Liberators' civil war|resulting war against Antony and Octavian]]. After the ''liberatores'' were defeated at the [[Battle of Philippi]], Labienus joined the Parthians.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morello |first=Antonio |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ipk_YgEACAAJ |title=Titus Labienus et Cingulum, Quintus Labienus Parthicus Volume 9 of Nummus et historia |publisher=Circolo numismatico Mario Rasile |year=2005 |access-date=16 November 2020 |archive-date=19 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819124625/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ipk_YgEACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Coins of Rome about Parthia: Quintus Labienus (42–39 B.C.) |url=http://www.parthia.com/labienus.htm |access-date=5 February 2013 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803183606/http://www.parthia.com/labienus.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Despite Rome's internal turmoil during the time, the Parthians did not immediately benefit from the [[power vacuum]] in the East due to Orodes II's reluctance despite Labienus' urgings to the contrary.<ref name="Hinard, 2000, pg 857">Hinard, 2000, p. 857</ref>

In the summer of 41 BC, Antony, to reassert Roman power in the East, conquered [[Palmyra]] on the Roman-Parthian border.<ref name="Hinard, 2000, pg 857" /> Antony then spent the winter of 41 BC in Alexandria with Cleopatra, leaving only two legions to defend the Syrian border against Parthian incursions. The legions, however, were composed of former Republican troops and Labienus convinced Orodes II to invade.