Editing Japanese grammar (section)

===Verbs===
{{Main|Japanese verb conjugation}}

{{nihongo|Verbs|動詞|dōshi}} in Japanese are rigidly constrained to the end of a clause. This means that the ''predicate position'' is always located at the end of a sentence.

{{fs interlinear|lang=ja|indent=3|glossing=no abbr
|猫 は 魚 を 食べる
|Neko wa sakana o taberu
|Cat TOPIC fish OBJECT eat
|"A cat eats fish"}}

The subject and objects of the verb are indicated by means of ''[[Japanese grammar#Particles|particles]]'', and the grammatical functions of the verb (primarily tense and voice) are indicated by means of [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugation]]. When the subject and the dissertative topic coincide, the subject is often omitted; if the verb is intransitive, the entire sentence may consist of a single verb. Verbs have two tenses indicated by conjugation, past and non-past. The semantic difference between present and future is not indicated by means of conjugation. Usually there is no ambiguity as context makes it clear whether the speaker is referring to the present or future. Voice and aspect are also indicated by means of conjugation, and possibly agglutinating auxiliary verbs. For example, the continuative aspect is formed by means of the continuative conjugation known as the ''gerundive'' or ''[[te form of Japanese verb|{{transliteration|ja|-te}} form]]'', and the auxiliary verb {{nihongo3|"to be"||iru}}; to illustrate, {{nihongo3|"to see"|見る|miru}} → {{nihongo3|"to be seeing"|見ている|mite iru}}.

Verbs can be semantically classified based on certain conjugations.
; Stative verbs: indicate existential properties, such as {{nihongo|"to be"|いる|iru}}, {{nihongo|"to be able to do"|出来る|dekiru}}, {{nihongo|"to need"|要る|iru}}, etc. These verbs generally do not have a continuative conjugation with {{transliteration|ja|-iru}} because they are semantically continuative already.
; Continual verbs: conjugate with the auxiliary {{transliteration|ja|-iru}} to indicate the progressive aspect. Examples: {{nihongo|"to eat"|食べる|taberu}}, {{nihongo|"to drink"|飲む|nomu}}, {{nihongo|"to think"|考える|kangaeru}}. To illustrate the conjugation, {{nihongo3|"to eat"|食べる|taberu}} → {{nihongo3|"to be eating"|食べている|tabete iru}}.
; Punctual verbs: conjugate with {{transliteration|ja|-iru}} to indicate a repeated action, or a continuing state after some action. Example: {{nihongo3|"to know"|知る|shiru}} → {{nihongo3|"to be knowing"|知っている|shitte iru}}; {{nihongo3|"to hit"|打つ|utsu}} → {{nihongo3|"to be hitting (repeatedly)"|打っている|utte iru}}.
; Non-volitional verb: indicate uncontrollable action or emotion. These verbs generally have no volitional, imperative or potential conjugation. Examples: {{nihongo3|"to like / to prefer" [emotive]|好む|konomu}}, {{nihongo3|"to be visible" [non-emotive]|見える|mieru}}.
; Movement verbs: indicate motion. Examples: {{nihongo3|"to walk"|歩く|aruku}}, {{nihongo3|"to return"|帰る|kaeru}}. In the continuative form (see [[Japanese grammar#Verbal adverbs|§ Verbal adverbs]]) they take the particle {{transliteration|ja|ni}} to indicate a purpose.
There are other possible classes, and a large amount of overlap between the classes.

Lexically, nearly every verb in Japanese is a member of exactly one of the following three regular ''conjugation groups'' (see also [[Japanese godan and ichidan verbs]]).
; {{nihongo|Group 2a|上一段|kami ichidan|lit. upper 1-row}}: verbs with a stem ending in {{transliteration|ja|-i}}. The terminal stem form always rhymes with {{transliteration|ja|-iru}}. Examples: {{nihongo3|"to see"|見る|miru}}, {{nihongo3|"to wear"|着る|kiru}}.
; {{nihongo|Group 2b|下一段|shimo ichidan|lit. lower 1-row}}: verbs with a stem ending in {{transliteration|ja|-e}}. The terminal stem form always rhymes with {{transliteration|ja|-eru}}. Examples: {{nihongo3|"to eat"|食べる|taberu}}, {{nihongo3|"to give" (to someone of lower or more intimate status)|くれる|kureru}}. (Some Group 1 verbs resemble Group 2b verbs, but their stems end in {{transliteration|ja|r-}}, not {{transliteration|ja|-e}}.)
; {{nihongo|Group 1|五段|godan|lit. 5-row}}: verbs with a stem ending in a consonant. When this is {{transliteration|ja|r-}} and the verb ends in {{transliteration|ja|-eru}}, it is not apparent from the terminal form whether the verb is Group 1 or Group 2b, e.g. {{nihongo3|"to return"|帰る|kaeru}}. If the stem ends in {{transliteration|ja|w-}}, that consonant sound only appears in before the final {{transliteration|ja|-a}} of the [[irrealis]] form.

The "row" in the above classification means a row in the [[gojūon]] table. "Upper 1-row" means the row that is one row above the center row (the {{transliteration|ja|u}}-row) i.e. i-row. "Lower 1-row" means the row that is one row below the center row (the {{transliteration|ja|u}}-row) i.e. {{transliteration|ja|e}}-row. "5-row" means the conjugation runs through all 5 rows of the [[gojūon]] table. A conjugation is fully described by identifying both the row and the column in the [[gojūon]] table. For example, {{nihongo3|"to see"|見る|miru}} belongs to {{nihongo3|{{transliteration|ja|ma}}-column {{transliteration|ja|i}}-row conjugation|マ行上一段活用}}, {{nihongo3|"to eat"|食べる|taberu}} belongs to {{nihongo3|{{transliteration|ja|ba}}-column {{transliteration|ja|e}}-row conjugation|バ行下一段活用}}, and {{nihongo3|"to return"|帰る|kaeru}} belongs to {{nihongo3|{{transliteration|ja|ra}}-column 5-row conjugation|ラ行五段活用}}.

One should avoid confusing verbs in {{nihongo3|{{transliteration|ja|ra}}-column 5-row conjugation|ラ行五段活用}} with verbs in {{nihongo3|{{transliteration|ja|i}}-row conjugation|上一段活用}} or {{nihongo|{{transliteration|ja|e}}-row conjugation|下一段活用}}. For example, {{nihongo3|"to cut"|切る|kiru}} belongs to {{nihongo|{{transliteration|ja|ra}}-column 5-row conjugation|ラ行五段活用}}, whereas its homophone {{nihongo3|"to wear"|着る|kiru}} belongs to {{nihongo|{{transliteration|ja|ka}}-column {{transliteration|ja|i}}-row conjugation|カ行上一段活用}}. Likewise, {{nihongo3|"to knead"|練る|neru}} belongs to {{nihongo|{{transliteration|ja|ra}}-column 5-row conjugation|ラ行五段活用}}, whereas its homophone {{nihongo3|"to sleep"|寝る|neru}} belongs to {{nihongo|{{transliteration|ja|na}}-column {{transliteration|ja|e}}-row conjugation|ナ行下一段活用}}.

Historically, Classical Japanese had {{nihongo|upper and lower 1-[[row group]]s|上・下一段|kami/shimo ichidan}}, {{nihongo|upper and lower 2-row groups|上・下二段|kami/shimo nidan}} and a {{nihongo|4-row group|四段|yodan}}. The {{transliteration|ja|nidan}} verbs became most of the {{transliteration|ja|ichidan}} verbs in modern Japanese (only a handful of {{transliteration|ja|kami ichidan}} verbs and a single {{transliteration|ja|shimo ichidan}} verb existed in classical Japanese). The {{transliteration|ja|yodan}} group was reclassified as the {{transliteration|ja|godan}} group during the post-WWII writing reform in 1946, to write Japanese as it is pronounced. Since verbs have migrated across groups in the history of the language, the conjugation of classical verbs cannot be ascertained from knowledge of modern Japanese alone.

Of the irregular classes, there are two:
; {{transliteration|ja|sa}}-group: which has only one member, {{nihongo3|"to do"|する|suru}}. In Japanese grammars these words are classified as {{nihongo3||サ変|sa-hen}}, an abbreviation of {{nihongo3||サ行変格活用|sa-gyō henkaku katsuyō}}, sa-row irregular conjugation).
; {{transliteration|ja|ka}}-group: which also has one member, {{nihongo3|"to come"|来る|kuru}}. The Japanese name for this class is {{nihongo3||カ行変格活用|ka-gyō henkaku katsuyō}} or simply {{nihongo3||カ変|ka-hen}}.
Classical Japanese had two further irregular classes, the {{transliteration|ja|na}}-group, which contained {{nihongo3|"to die"|死ぬ|shinu}} and {{nihongo3|"to go"/"to die"|往ぬ|inu}}, the {{transliteration|ja|ra}}-group, which included such verbs as {{nihongo3||あり|ari}}, the equivalent of modern {{transliteration|ja|aru}}, as well as quite a number of extremely irregular verbs that cannot be classified.

The following table illustrates the stem forms of the above conjugation groups, with the root indicated with dots. For example, to find the hypothetical form of the group 1 verb {{nihongo3||書く|kaku}}, look in the second row to find its root, {{transliteration|ja|kak-}}, then in the hypothetical row to get the ending {{transliteration|ja|-e}}, giving the stem form {{transliteration|ja|kake}}. When there are multiple possibilities, they are listed in the order of increasing rarity.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+
!Group
! colspan="2" |1
!2a
!2b
! rowspan="2" |{{transliteration|ja|sa}}
! rowspan="2" |{{transliteration|ja|ka}}
|-
!Example
!{{nihongo||使・|tsuka(w).}}
!{{nihongo||書・|kak.}}
!{{nihongo||見・|mi.}}
!{{nihongo||食べ・|tabe.}}
|-
!{{nihongo|Irrealis form<sup>1</sup>{{pb}}|未然形|mizenkei}}
|{{nihongo||使わ|tsukaw.a}}<sup>2</sup>{{pb}}{{nihongo||使お|tsuka.o}}
|{{nihongo||書か|kak.a}}{{pb}}{{nihongo||書こ|kak.o}}
|{{nihongo||見|mi.}}
|{{nihongo||食べ|tabe.}}
|{{nihongo||さ|sa}}{{pb}}{{nihongo||し|shi}}{{pb}}{{nihongo||せ|se}}
|{{nihongo||来|ko}}
|-
!{{nihongo|Continuative form{{pb}}|連用形|ren'yōkei}}
|{{nihongo||使い|tsuka.i}}
|{{nihongo||書き|kak.i}}
|{{nihongo||見|mi.}}
|{{nihongo||食べ|tabe.}}
|{{nihongo||し|shi}}
|{{nihongo||来|ki}}
|-
!{{nihongo|Terminal form{{pb}}|終止形|shūshikei}}
|{{nihongo||使う|tsuka.u}}
|{{nihongo||書く|kak.u}}
|{{nihongo||見る|mi.ru}}
|{{nihongo||食べる|tabe.ru}}
|{{nihongo||する|suru}}
|{{nihongo||来る|kuru}}
|-
!Attributive form
| colspan="6" |Same as terminal form
|-
!{{nihongo|Hypothetical form{{pb}}|仮定形|kateikei}}
|{{nihongo||使え|tsuka.e}}
|{{nihongo||書け|kak.e}}
|{{nihongo||見れ|mi.re}}
|{{nihongo||食べれ|tabe.re}}
|{{nihongo||すれ|sure}}
|{{nihongo||来れ|kure}}
|-
!{{nihongo|Imperative form{{pb}}|命令形|meireikei}}
|{{nihongo||使え|tsuka.e}}
|{{nihongo||書け|kak.e}}
|{{nihongo||見ろ|mi.ro}}{{pb}}{{nihongo||見よ|mi.yo}}
|{{nihongo||食べろ|tabe.ro}}{{pb}}{{nihongo||食べよ|tabe.yo}}
|{{nihongo||しろ|shiro}}{{pb}}{{nihongo||せよ|seyo}}{{pb}}{{nihongo||せい|sei}}
|{{nihongo||来い|koi}}
|}

# The {{transliteration|ja|-a}} and {{transliteration|ja|-o}} irrealis forms for Group 1 verbs were historically one, but since the post-WWII spelling reforms they have been written differently. In modern Japanese the {{transliteration|ja|-o}} form is used only for the volitional mood and the {{transliteration|ja|-a}} form is used in all other cases; see also the conjugation table below.
# The unexpected ending is due to the verb's root being {{transliteration|ja|tsukaw-}} but {{transliteration|ja|w-}} only being pronounced before {{transliteration|ja|-a}} in modern Japanese.

The above are only the stem forms of the verbs; to these one must add various verb endings in order to get the fully conjugated verb. The following table lists the most common conjugations. Note that in some cases the form is different depending on the conjugation group of the verb. See [[Japanese verb conjugation]]s for a full list.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! rowspan="2"| &nbsp;
! rowspan="2"| formation rule
! group 1
! group 2a
! group 2b
! {{transliteration|ja|sa}}-group
! {{transliteration|ja|ka}}-group
|-
! {{nihongo||書く|kaku}}
! {{nihongo||見る|miru}}
! {{nihongo||食べる|taberu}}
! {{nihongo||する|suru}}
! {{nihongo||来る|kuru}}
|-
! polite{{pb}}[[imperfective aspect|imperfective]]
| cont. + {{nihongo||ます|masu}}
| {{nihongo||書き・ます|kaki.masu}}
| {{nihongo||見・ます|mi.masu}}
| {{nihongo||食べ・ます|tabe.masu}}
| {{nihongo||し・ます|shi.masu}}
| {{nihongo||来・ます|ki.masu}}
|-
! plain{{pb}}[[perfective aspect|perfective]]
| cont. + {{nihongo||た|ta}}
| {{nihongo||書い・た|kai.ta}}<sup>2</sup>
| {{nihongo||見・た|mi.ta}}
| {{nihongo||食べ・た|tabe.ta}}
| {{nihongo||し・た|shi.ta}}
| {{nihongo||来・た|ki.ta}}
|-
! plain{{pb}}negative{{pb}}[[imperfective aspect|imperfective]]
| irrealis + {{nihongo||ない|nai}}
| {{nihongo||書か・ない|kaka.nai}}
| {{nihongo||見・ない|mi.nai}}
| {{nihongo||食べ・ない|tabe.nai}}
| {{nihongo||し・ない|shi.nai}}
| {{nihongo||来・ない|ko.nai}}
|-
! plain{{pb}}negative{{pb}}[[perfective aspect|perfective]]
| irrealis + {{nihongo||なかった|nakatta}}
| {{nihongo||書か・なかった|kaka.nakatta}}
| {{nihongo||見・なかった|mi.nakatta}}
| {{nihongo||食べ・なかった|tabe.nakatta}}
| {{nihongo||し・なかった|shi.nakatta}}
| {{nihongo||来・なかった|ko.nakatta}}
|-
! {{transliteration|ja|-te}} form (gerundive)
| cont. + {{nihongo||て|-te}}
| {{nihongo||書いて|kai.te}}<sup>2</sup>
| {{nihongo||見て|mi.te}}
| {{nihongo||食べて|tabe.te}}
| {{nihongo||して|shi.te}}
| {{nihongo||来て|ki.te}}
|-
! provisional{{pb}}conditional
| hyp. + {{nihongo||ば|ba}}
| {{nihongo||書け・ば|kake.ba}}
| {{nihongo||見れ・ば|mire.ba}}
| {{nihongo||食べれ・ば|tabere.ba}}
| {{nihongo||すれ・ば|sure.ba}}
| {{nihongo||来れ・ば|kure.ba}}
|-
! past{{pb}}conditional
| cont. + {{nihongo||たら|tara}}
| {{nihongo||書いたら|kai.tara}}<sup>2</sup>
| {{nihongo||見たら|mi.tara}}
| {{nihongo||食べたら|tabe.tara}}
| {{nihongo||したら|shi.tara}}
| {{nihongo||来たら|ki.tara}}
|-
!rowspan="2"| volitional
| irrealis + {{nihongo||う|u}}
| {{nihongo||書こ・う|kako.u}}
|colspan="4"|
|-
| irrealis + {{nihongo||よう|yō}}
|
| {{nihongo||見・よう|mi.yō}}
| {{nihongo||食べ・よう|tabe.yō}}
| {{nihongo||し・よう|shi.yō}}
| {{nihongo||来・よう|ko.yō}}
|-
!rowspan="2"| passive
| irrealis + {{nihongo||れる|reru}}
| {{nihongo||書か・れる|kaka.reru}}
|colspan="2"|
| {{nihongo||さ・れる|sa.reru}}
|
|-
| irrealis + {{nihongo||られる|rareru}}
|
| {{nihongo||見・られる|mi.rareru}}
| {{nihongo||食べ・られる|tabe.rareru}}
|
| {{nihongo||来・られる|ko.rareru}}
|-
!rowspan="2"| causative
| irrealis + {{nihongo||せる|seru}}
| {{nihongo||書か・せる|kaka.seru}}
|colspan="2"|
| {{nihongo||さ・せる|sa.seru}}
|
|-
| irrealis + {{nihongo||させる|saseru}}
|
| {{nihongo||見・させる|mi.saseru}}
| {{nihongo||食べ・させる|tabe.saseru}}
|
| {{nihongo||来・させる|ko.saseru}}
|-
!rowspan="2"| potential
| hyp. + {{nihongo||る|ru}}
| {{nihongo||書け・る|kake.ru}}
|colspan="2"|
| {{nihongo||出来る|dekiru}}<sup>1</sup>
|
|-
| irrealis + {{nihongo||られる|rareru}}
|
| {{nihongo||見・られる|mi.rareru}}
| {{nihongo||食べ・られる|tabe.rareru}}
|
| {{nihongo||来・られる|ko.rareru}}
|}

# This is an entirely different verb; {{nihongo||する|suru}} has no potential form.
# These forms change depending on the final syllable of the verb's dictionary form (whether {{transliteration|ja|u, ku, gu, su,}} etc.). For details, see [[#Euphonic changes (音便, onbin)|Euphonic changes]], below, and the article [[Japanese verb conjugation]].

The polite ending {{transliteration|ja|-masu}} conjugates as a group 1 verb, except that the negative imperfective and perfective forms are {{transliteration|ja|-masen}} and {{transliteration|ja|-masen deshita}} respectively, and certain conjugations are in practice rarely if ever used. The passive and potential endings {{transliteration|ja|-reru}} and {{transliteration|ja|-rareru}}, and the causative endings {{transliteration|ja|-seru}} and {{transliteration|ja|-saseru}} all conjugate as group 2b verbs. Multiple verbal endings can therefore agglutinate. For example, a common formation is the ''causative-passive'' ending: {{transliteration|ja|-sase-rareru}}.

{{fs interlinear|lang=ja|indent=3
|僕 は 姉 に 納豆 を 食べさせられた。
|Boku wa ane ni nattō o tabe'''saserareta'''.
|I '''was made to''' eat {{transliteration|ja|[[nattō]]}} by my (elder) sister.}}

As should be expected, the vast majority of theoretically possible combinations of conjugative endings are not semantically meaningful.

====Transitive and intransitive verbs====
Japanese has a large variety of related pairs of [[transitive verb]]s (that take a direct object) and [[intransitive verb]]s (that do not usually take a direct object), such as the transitive {{nihongo3|someone or something begins an activity|始める|hajimeru}}, and the intransitive {{nihongo3|an activity begins|始まる|hajimaru}}.<ref>[http://www.sljfaq.org/afaq/jitadoushi.html "What's the difference between hajimeru and hajimaru?"] in ''sci.lang.japan Frequently Asked Questions''</ref><ref>Kim Allen (2000) [http://kimallen.sheepdogdesign.net/Japanese/verbs2.html "Japanese verbs, part 2"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810194203/http://kimallen.sheepdogdesign.net/Japanese/verbs2.html |date=2007-08-10}} in ''Japanese for the Western Brain''</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+
!transitive verb
!intransitive verb
|-
|
* One thing acts out the transitive verb on another
* Usually uses {{nihongo||を|o}} to link to the direct object
|
* The intransitive verb passively happens without direct intervention.
* Usually uses {{nihongo||が|ga}} or {{nihongo||は|wa}} to link subject and verb.
|-
|{{fs interlinear|lang=ja|先生 が 授業 を 始める。|Sensei ga jugyō o hajimeru.|The teacher starts the class.}}
|{{fs interlinear|lang=ja|授業 が 始まる。|Jugyō ga hajimaru.|The class starts.}}
|-
|{{fs interlinear|lang=ja|車 に 何 か を 入れる|Kuruma ni nani ka o ireru|To put something in the car}}
|{{fs interlinear|lang=ja|車 に 入る|Kuruma ni hairu|To enter the car}}
|-
|{{nihongo3|'to take/put out'|出す|dasu}}
|{{nihongo3|'to exit'|出る|deru}}
|-
|{{nihongo3|'to extinguish'|消す|kesu}}
|{{nihongo3|'to go out'|消える|kieru}}
|-
|{{nihongo3|'to open [something]'|開ける|akeru}}
|{{nihongo3|'to open'/'to be open'|開く|aku}}
|-
|{{nihongo3|'to attach [something]'|付ける|tsukeru}}
|{{nihongo3|'to attach'/'to be attached'|付く|tsuku}}
|-
|{{nihongo3|'to close [something]'|閉める|shimeru}}
|{{nihongo3|'to close'/'to be closed'|閉まる|shimaru}}
|-
|{{nihongo3|'to find'|見つける|mitsukeru}}
|{{nihongo3|'to be found'|見つかる|mitsukaru}}
|-
|{{nihongo3|'to extract'|抜く|nuku}}
|{{nihongo3|'to come out'|抜ける|nukeru}}
|-
|{{nihongo3|'to wake [someone] up'|起こす|okosu}}
|{{nihongo3|'to wake up'|起きる|okiru}}
|-
|{{nihongo3|'to give birth'|生む|umu}}
|{{nihongo3|'to be born'|生まれる|umareru}}
|}

Note: Some intransitive verbs (usually verbs of motion) take what looks like a direct object, but is not.<ref>{{cite journal |last=早津 |first=恵美子 |date=1 December 1987 |editor1=壇辻正剛 |editor2=楢崎勝則 |title=Taiō suru tadōshi no aru jidōshi no imiteki tōgoteki tokuchō |script-title=ja:対応する他動詞のある自動詞の 意味的・統語的特徴 |trans-title=Semantic and syntactic characteristics of intransitive verbs that have corresponding transitive verbs |url=https://repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2433/87929/1/gen00006_079.pdf |department=論文 |journal=Gengogaku kenkyū |script-journal=ja:言語学研究 |trans-journal=Linguistic Research<!--this translation is the official english name of the journal--> |language=ja |volume=6 |publisher=京都大学言語学研究会 (Kyōto daigaku gengogaku kenkyūkai) [Kyoto University Linguistics Circle<!--this translation is the official english name of the publisher-->] |pages=79-109 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240529161801/https://repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2433/87929/1/gen00006_079.pdf |archive-date=29 May 2024 |access-date=18 May 2025 |hdl=2433/87929 |hdl-access=free |issn=0915-6178 |id={{NAID|120001712186}}}}</ref> For example, {{nihongo3|to leave|離れる|hanareru}}:

{{fs interlinear|lang=ja|indent=3
|私 は 東京 を 離れる。
|Watashi wa Tōkyō o hanareru.
|I leave Tokyo.}}

{{anchor|Adjectives|adjectives}}