Editing Ivy League (section)

=== Racial segregation and integration ===
Ivy League institutions have a complex history of racial segregation, and, eventually, integration. All of the universities in the Ivy League besides Cornell University were chartered during the [[Slavery in the United States|American era of slavery]].<ref name="Bradley-2021" /> In 2003, Brown University was the first of the Ivies to take accountability for their historic ties to slavery and the [[Atlantic slave trade#:~:text=The Atlantic slave trade, transatlantic,16th to the 19th centuries.|transatlantic slave trade]].<ref name="Brown's Slavery & Justice Report, Digital 2nd Edition | Brown University" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Editorial |date=2006-10-23 |title=Opinion {{!}} Brown University's Debt to Slavery |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/23/opinion/23mon3.html |access-date=2023-07-02 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=July 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703021359/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/23/opinion/23mon3.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Following Brown, other Ivy League universities formed committees to examine their ties to slavery, and found various institutional relationships to slavery. Yale University, for example, used profits from slave traders and owners to fund its first scholarships, libraries, and faculty positions.<ref>{{cite web |title=First Scholarship Fund |url=http://www.yaleslavery.org/Endowments/e2schol.html |access-date=2022-12-15 |website=www.yaleslavery.org |archive-date=December 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215210913/http://yaleslavery.org/Endowments/e2schol.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=First Endowed Professorship |url=http://yaleslavery.org/Endowments/e1prof.html |access-date=2022-12-15 |website=yaleslavery.org |archive-date=December 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215210910/http://yaleslavery.org/Endowments/e1prof.html |url-status=live }}</ref> To date, some of Yale's residential colleges are named after slave traders and supporters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Berkeley College |url=http://www.yaleslavery.org/WhoYaleHonors/berk.html |access-date=2022-12-15 |website=www.yaleslavery.org |archive-date=November 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221126133541/http://yaleslavery.org/WhoYaleHonors/berk.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The investigations at Harvard, Princeton, Columbia, and the University of Pennsylvania all found that, in the century following their charters, enslaved Black people lived on campus to care for students, professors, or the universities' presidents.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Harvard & Slavery |url=http://www.harvardandslavery.com/ |access-date=2022-12-15 |language=en-US |archive-date=December 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215210911/http://www.harvardandslavery.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="slavery.princeton.edu" /><ref name="Time">{{cite magazine |title=This Is How Columbia University Benefited From Slavery |url=https://time.com/4645241/columbia-university-slavery-ties-report/ |access-date=2022-12-15 |magazine=Time |language=en |archive-date=December 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215210914/https://time.com/4645241/columbia-university-slavery-ties-report/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Slave Ownership · |url=http://pennandslaveryproject.org/exhibits/show/slaveownership |access-date=2022-12-15 |website=pennandslaveryproject.org}}</ref> Notably, Princeton's first nine presidents were slave owners, and in 1766, a slave auction reportedly took place on Princeton's campus.<ref name="slavery.princeton.edu" />

A small number of Black people did attend Ivy League institutions as students during their early years. These early students, however, were not always granted degrees. For example, some Black students were recorded studying privately with the Princeton University president as early as 1774, but no Black students received Princeton degrees until the middle of the twentieth century.<ref name="Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study at Harvard University">{{Cite web |title=The Long Legacies of Slavery: Segregation, Marginalization, and Resistance at Harvard |url=https://legacyofslavery.harvard.edu/report/the-long-legacies-of-slavery-segregation-marginalization-and-resistance-at-harvard |access-date=2022-12-01 |website=Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study at Harvard University |language=en |archive-date=December 1, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201103708/https://legacyofslavery.harvard.edu/report/the-long-legacies-of-slavery-segregation-marginalization-and-resistance-at-harvard |url-status=live }}</ref> Jonathan and Philip Gayienquitioga, two brothers of the [[Mohawk Nation|Mohawk People]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Mohawk Nation Council of Chiefs - Akwesasne, NY|url=http://www.mohawknation.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=47&Itemid=56|access-date=July 24, 2021|website=www.mohawknation.org|archive-date=August 11, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811190057/http://www.mohawknation.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=47&Itemid=56|url-status=live}}</ref> were the first people of color to enroll at Penn in 1755 after being recruited by Benjamin Franklin to attend the Academy of Philadelphia (then part of [[University of Pennsylvania|Penn]]).<ref name="sas.upenn">{{cite web | url=https://nais.sas.upenn.edu/about/history-native-american-studies-penn | title=History: Native American Studies at Penn &#124; Native American & Indigenous Studies at Penn | access-date=May 4, 2023 | archive-date=December 14, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201214055159/https://nais.sas.upenn.edu/about/history-native-american-studies-penn | url-status=live }}</ref> But there is no evidence that either earned a degree as the first Native American to graduate Penn did not occur until 1847 when Robert Daniel Ross, a member of the [[Cherokee Nation]], graduated with a degree from [[University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine|Penn's medical school]].<ref name="sas.upenn"/>

==== 19th and early 20th centuries ====
In 1900, [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] oversaw and edited ''The College-bred Negro''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Du Bois |first1=W. E. B. |title=The college-bred negro : a report of a social study made under the direction of Atlanta University in 1900 edited by W.E. Burghardt Du Bois |date=1902 |publisher=Atlanta University Press |url=https://repository.wellesley.edu/object/wellesley30405 |access-date=September 1, 2023 |archive-date=September 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230901054008/https://repository.wellesley.edu/object/wellesley30405 |url-status=live }}</ref> a study on Black integration in colleges and universities that found a combined total of 52 Black students had graduated from Ivy League schools in their collective histories. Since no official policies prohibited schools in the Ivy League from admitting students of color each university in the League had different policies regarding the admission of Black students.<ref name="Bradley-2021" /> Dartmouth's first Black student graduated in 1828, while Princeton would only admit their first Black student under the [[V-12 Navy College Training Program]] in the 1940s.<ref name="Bradley-2021" /><ref name="www.dartmouth.edu">{{Cite web |title=Finding Community: The Life of Edward Mitchell 1828 |url=https://www.dartmouth.edu/library/rauner/exhibits/finding-community.html |access-date=2022-12-07 |website=www.dartmouth.edu |archive-date=December 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207190407/https://www.dartmouth.edu/library/rauner/exhibits/finding-community.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Early Black student admits to Ivy League universities were controversial and often faced backlash. Dartmouth initially denied its first Black graduate, Edward Mitchell, supposedly to avoid "offend[ing] students". Dartmouth students protested this decision, leading to Mitchell's admission in 1824.<ref name="www.dartmouth.edu" /> [[Richard Henry Green]] was awarded an [[Doctor of Medicine|MD]] degree by Dartmouth College in 1864.<ref name=":2" />

Harvard admitted its first Black student, Beverly Garnett Williams, in 1847. News of his admission incited protests by Harvard students and faculty.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Perfloff-Giles |first=Alexandra |date=2008-04-24 |title=Seminar Studies Slave Ties |url=https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2008/4/24/seminar-studies-slave-ties-span-stylefont-style/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304083624/https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2008/4/24/seminar-studies-slave-ties-span-stylefont-style/ |archive-date=2016-03-04 |access-date= |website=www.thecrimson.com}}</ref> Williams died before the academic year began, however, and never matriculated.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Newman |first1=Richard |date=2002 |title=Harvard's Forgotten First Black Student |journal=The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education |issue=38 |pages=92 |doi=10.2307/3134217 |jstor=3134217 |id={{ProQuest|195532551}}}}</ref> [[Richard Theodore Greener]] was the first African American to receive a Harvard degree in 1870.<ref name="Chicago Sun docs">{{cite web |last=Janssen |first=Kim |date=2012-03-11 |title='It gives me gooseflesh': Remarkable find in South Side attic |url=http://www.suntimes.com/11149243-417/it-gives-me-gooseflesh-remarkable-find-in-s-side-attic.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313232009/http://www.suntimes.com/11149243-417/it-gives-me-gooseflesh-remarkable-find-in-s-side-attic.html |archive-date=2012-03-13 |work=Chicago Sun-Times}}</ref> Between 1890 and 1940, an average of three Black men enrolled at Harvard per year.<ref name="Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study at Harvard University" /> In 1923, Harvard's Board of Overseers overruled University President Abbot Lawrence's ban on Black students living in dorms, announcing that all freshmen would be permitted to live in dorms regardless of race, but upheld that “men of the white and colored races shall not be compelled to live and eat together."<ref name="The Harvard Crimson-3">{{Cite web |title=Compelled to Coexist: A History on the Desegregation of Harvard's Freshman Housing |url=https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2021/11/4/housing-desegregation/ |access-date=2022-12-01 |website=The Harvard Crimson |archive-date=September 28, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928084627/https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2021/11/4/housing-desegregation/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Brown seems to have refused admission to Black students outright prior to the Civil War. Abolitionist Elizabeth Buffum Chase wrote in her book ''Anti Slavery Reminiscences'' about "a lad of rare excellence and attainments [who] was refused an examination for admission by the authorities of Brown University on account of the color of his skin." Inman Page was the first Black student to graduate from Brown in 1877, and was class speaker.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Slater |first=Robert Bruce |date=1994 |title=The Blacks who First Entered the World of White Higher Education |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2963372 |journal=The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education |issue=4 |pages=47–56 |doi=10.2307/2963372 |jstor=2963372 |issn=1077-3711 |access-date=July 3, 2023 |archive-date=July 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703051855/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2963372 |url-status=live }}</ref>

William Adger, James Brister, and [[Nathan Francis Mossell]] were the first Black students enrolled at [[University of Pennsylvania|Penn]] in 1879.<ref name="PT-Adger">{{cite web |last=Davis |first=Heather A. |date=September 21, 2017 |title=For the Record: William Adger |url=https://penntoday.upenn.edu/for-the-record/for-the-record-william-adger |website=Penn Today, University of Pennsylvania |access-date=May 4, 2023 |archive-date=June 23, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623194522/https://penntoday.upenn.edu/for-the-record/for-the-record-william-adger |url-status=live }}</ref> Brister graduated from the [[University of Pennsylvania School of Dental Medicine|School of Dental Medicine (Penn Dental)]] in 1881 as the first African American to earn a degree from Penn, while Adger was the first African American to graduate from the college in 1883.<ref>{{cite web |title=James Brister |url=https://archives.upenn.edu/exhibits/penn-people/biography/james-brister |access-date=February 28, 2021 |website=University Archives and Records Center |publisher=Penn |archive-date=February 28, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228043551/https://archives.upenn.edu/exhibits/penn-people/biography/james-brister |url-status=live }}</ref>

Columbia University has claimed that four Black students earned University degrees between 1875 and 1900,<ref name=":1" /> though their names are apparently unknown.

Yale's [[Edward Bouchet]], was the first Black person (a) elected to [[Phi Beta Kappa]] in the US in 1874 and (b) to earn a [[Ph.D.]] from any American university, completing his [[dissertation]] in [[physics]] in 1876.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Branch |first1=Mark Alden |title=Before Green and Bouchet, another African American Yale College grad. Maybe. |url=https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/blog_posts/1729 |website=Yale Alumni Magazine |access-date=10 November 2023 |date=March 7, 2014 |archive-date=November 10, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231110153537/https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/blog_posts/1729 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.ams.org/samplings/math-history/hmath3-index|title=A Century of Mathematics in America|date=1988–1989|publisher=American Mathematical Society|last=Donaldson|first=James|location=Providence, R.I.|oclc=18191729|isbn=0-8218-0136-8|pages=453|access-date=September 1, 2023|archive-date=December 24, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171224231131/http://www.ams.org/samplings/math-history/hmath3-index|url-status=live}} accessed September 1, 2023</ref> Bouchet was thought to have been the first African-American graduate of Yale, but research publicized in 2014 reported that Yale awarded a Black man, [[Richard Henry Green]], a bachelor of arts degree in 1857.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=NYT>{{cite web | last = Kaminer | first = Ariel | title = Discovery Leads Yale to Revise a Chapter of Its Black History | newspaper = The New York Times | location = New York, New York | date = February 28, 2014 | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/01/nyregion/discovery-leads-yale-to-revise-a-chapter-of-its-black-history.html?hp | access-date = September 1, 2023 | archive-date = September 22, 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230922125840/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/01/nyregion/discovery-leads-yale-to-revise-a-chapter-of-its-black-history.html?hp | url-status = live }}</ref>

Cornell seemed the most inclusive of the Ivy Leagues at its inception, with admission open to any race and gender.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Historic Commitment |url=https://diversity.cornell.edu/our-story/our-historic-commitment |access-date=2022-12-01 |website=Cornell University Diversity and Inclusion |archive-date=December 1, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201234558/https://diversity.cornell.edu/our-story/our-historic-commitment |url-status=live }}</ref> University co-founder Andrew Dickson White wrote in 1874 that the school had ''"''no colored students...at present but shall be very glad to receive any who are prepared to enter...if even one offered himself and passed the examinations, we should receive him even if all our five hundred white students were to ask for dismissal on that account."<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 5, 1874 |title=Letter from A. D. White to C. H. McCormick regarding African-American students at Cornell |url=https://rmc.library.cornell.edu/presidents/view_image-img=28.php.html |access-date=2023-07-03 |website=rmc.library.cornell.edu |archive-date=July 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703035239/https://rmc.library.cornell.edu/presidents/view_image-img=28.php.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1890, Charles Chauveau Cook and Jane Eleanor Datcher were the first Black students awarded four-year undergraduate Cornell degrees.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Early Black Women at Cornell |url=https://rmc.library.cornell.edu/earlyblackwomen/introduction/ |access-date=2023-07-03 |website=rmc.library.cornell.edu |archive-date=December 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209122531/https://rmc.library.cornell.edu/earlyblackwomen/introduction/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Despite this, Black students faced legal and social segregation in the town of Ithaca, New York. In 1905, Black students reported being denied housing while attending Cornell.<ref name="Bradley-2021" />

Princeton University, sometimes referred to as the "Southern-most Ivy", was the last to integrate. In Du Bois' ''The College-bred Negro'' (1900)'','' a Princeton representative is quoted: "We have never had any colored students here, though there is nothing in the University statutes to prevent their admission. It is possible, however, in view of our proximity to the South and the large number of southern students here, that Negro students would find Princeton less comfortable than some other institutions."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Du Bois |first=William Edward Burghardt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4RYiAQAAIAAJ&q=princeton&pg=PA36 |title=The College-bred Negro; Report of Social Study Made Under the Direction of Atlanta University; Together with the Proceedings of the Fifth Conference for the Study of the Negro Problems, Held at Atlanta University, May 29-30, 1900 ... |publisher=Atlanta University Press |year=1900 |location=Atlanta, GA |pages=36 |language=en |access-date=July 10, 2023 |archive-date=July 15, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230715024622/https://books.google.com/books?id=4RYiAQAAIAAJ&q=princeton&pg=PA36 |url-status=live }}</ref> Notably, in 1939, Princeton revoked admittance to Black student Bruce Wright upon his arrival on campus, when Director of Admission Radcliffe Heermance noticed Wright's race.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Armstrong |first=April |date=2017-02-08 |title=Integrating Princeton University: Robert Joseph Rivers '53 |url=https://blogs.princeton.edu/mudd/2017/02/integrating-princeton-university/ |access-date=2022-12-06 |website=Mudd Manuscript Library Blog |language=en-US |archive-date=December 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221208000703/https://blogs.princeton.edu/mudd/2017/02/integrating-princeton-university/ |url-status=live }}</ref> When a disappointed Wright wrote Heermance requesting an explanation, Heermance responded:<blockquote>"I cannot conscientiously advise a colored student to apply for admission to Princeton simply because I do not think that he would be happy in this environment. There are no colored students in the University and a member of your race might feel very much alone...My personal experience would enforce my advice to any colored student that he would be happier in an environment of others of his race, and that he would adjust himself far more easily to the life of a New England college or university, or one of the large state universities than he would to a residential college of this particular type."<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-02-04 |title="Princeton University Does Not Discriminate…": African American Exclusion at Princeton |url=https://universityarchives.princeton.edu/2015/02/princeton-university-does-not-discriminate-african-american-exclusion-at-princeton/ |access-date=2023-07-03 |website=University Archives |language=en-US |archive-date=July 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703021359/https://universityarchives.princeton.edu/2015/02/princeton-university-does-not-discriminate-african-american-exclusion-at-princeton/ |url-status=live }}</ref></blockquote>The few early Black students admitted to Ivy League universities were often from wealthy Caribbean families.<ref name="Bradley-2021" /> Barriers preventing African American students from attending Ivy League universities included the universities' policies, poor recruitment, tuition costs, and the lack of secondary education opportunities in a [[Racial segregation|racially segregated]] country.<ref name="Bradley-2021" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Clewell |first1=Beatriz Chu |last2=Anderson |first2=Bernice Taylor |date=1995 |title=African Americans in Higher Education: An Issue of Access |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23263010 |journal=Humboldt Journal of Social Relations |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=55–79 |jstor=23263010 |issn=0160-4341 |access-date=December 16, 2022 |archive-date=December 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207190335/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23263010 |url-status=live }}</ref> More Black students attended Ivy League graduate and professional schools than their undergraduate programs.<ref name="Bradley-2021" /> By the middle of the 20th century, only 54 Black men and women had graduated with a Bachelor degree from Ivy League universities.<ref name="Bradley-2021" />

==== Late 20th century ====

By the middle of the 20th century, some Ivy League students and alumni were advocating for increased racial integration efforts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Editorial |date=September 30, 1942 |title=White Supremacy at Princeton |url=https://theprince.princeton.edu/princetonperiodicals/cgi-bin/imageserver.pl?oid=Princetonian19420930-01&getpdf=true |journal=[[The Daily Princetonian]] |volume=LXVII |issue=84 |pages=1–2 |access-date=July 3, 2023 |archive-date=July 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703035238/https://theprince.princeton.edu/princetonperiodicals/cgi-bin/imageserver.pl?oid=Princetonian19420930-01&getpdf=true |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=William H. |first=Greider |date=October 25, 1956 |title=Students Push to Have More Negroes Admitted |url=https://theprince.princeton.edu/princetonperiodicals/cgi-bin/imageserver.pl?oid=Princetonian19561025-01&getpdf=true |journal=The Daily Princetonian |volume=LXXX |issue=107 |pages=1, 3–4 |quote=The fact that Princeton, a liberal university of 2800 undergraduates, has but two Negro students...is a point of concern for a small group of undergraduates, the members of the Westminster Fellowship of the Presbyterian Church. |access-date=July 2, 2023 |archive-date=July 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702224905/https://theprince.princeton.edu/princetonperiodicals/cgi-bin/imageserver.pl?oid=Princetonian19561025-01&getpdf=true |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=April 21, 1950 |title=JRC Probes Negro Admission Policy |url=https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1950/4/21/jrc-probes-negro-admission-policy-pbecause/ |access-date=2023-07-02 |website=The Harvard Crimson |archive-date=July 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702224854/https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1950/4/21/jrc-probes-negro-admission-policy-pbecause/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=December 1, 1948 |title=Racial Equality Group Started |url=https://spectatorarchive.library.columbia.edu/?a=is&oid=cs19481201-01&type=staticpdf&pdfaccesscode=PdkGcxuwzf9DRwVwstREzK0NHk5KXviu6wibCYmK/91oI=&submitted=1&e=------194-en-20--1--txt-txIN-segregation------&g-recaptcha-response=03AAYGu2R2ZxGGw39CrWMYwcFnzYqwKtaA7QaOkCsSDlEG4roLgeIRI_i49dt2PeLA3wOzSz0r2hgrDpjxFmvYv5bfVCNxFyZOsUsz-kzXzkHhGx0ZH5T2-6Dj_if5cGFFOYiWFrZbp0VGzwyWiSMedFc7n-s27W9JFXE9Fpw6z5Xx9eVv8auSdwry4pReCBq-wEgv-6aFpgIpLNJVEaCwK6UcaoiMnbTxvJQTyYPoF7rySd4OiXRJAjlXUR90adz6yXFryhmB9EDX-vgpe-4qrVp35BxQVKes0hOFBdl8cc4vVCkrjnbnNHMioe1lVSF4DNOFwej6Zlx8PZSE1B7h5fqPncPdrcWJ9E7D4t0eGKaWpXVrjITQFn4WxxqHiaZwcLh8KAknKeiitheKCfP1V81cH7yo7TAqPWYJ2nqYaLtqNtQD_T02KYldQntMPDQpOLQmhfQyVyXJ3GY26-NtuY-Ya7Km4rRMsOxGGMPvDFjCaP788oecQiDQCPTjoVvYOTuXsgNHqA9XdyDzPMSeMo-c71_TV3ohQMM5GESPmozcdAaP-um2vbJY9qF_0gNW1sgP1ilm-4G03OpvrRt-6uC3LNsu6bGSgVBapQZK-MufVRTXY5asDlI |access-date=2023-07-03 |website=Columbia Spectator |archive-date=July 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703051901/https://spectatorarchive.library.columbia.edu/?a=is&oid=cs19481201-01&type=staticpdf&pdfaccesscode=PdkGcxuwzf9DRwVwstREzK0NHk5KXviu6wibCYmK/91oI=&submitted=1&e=------194-en-20--1--txt-txIN-segregation------&g-recaptcha-response=03AAYGu2R2ZxGGw39CrWMYwcFnzYqwKtaA7QaOkCsSDlEG4roLgeIRI_i49dt2PeLA3wOzSz0r2hgrDpjxFmvYv5bfVCNxFyZOsUsz-kzXzkHhGx0ZH5T2-6Dj_if5cGFFOYiWFrZbp0VGzwyWiSMedFc7n-s27W9JFXE9Fpw6z5Xx9eVv8auSdwry4pReCBq-wEgv-6aFpgIpLNJVEaCwK6UcaoiMnbTxvJQTyYPoF7rySd4OiXRJAjlXUR90adz6yXFryhmB9EDX-vgpe-4qrVp35BxQVKes0hOFBdl8cc4vVCkrjnbnNHMioe1lVSF4DNOFwej6Zlx8PZSE1B7h5fqPncPdrcWJ9E7D4t0eGKaWpXVrjITQFn4WxxqHiaZwcLh8KAknKeiitheKCfP1V81cH7yo7TAqPWYJ2nqYaLtqNtQD_T02KYldQntMPDQpOLQmhfQyVyXJ3GY26-NtuY-Ya7Km4rRMsOxGGMPvDFjCaP788oecQiDQCPTjoVvYOTuXsgNHqA9XdyDzPMSeMo-c71_TV3ohQMM5GESPmozcdAaP-um2vbJY9qF_0gNW1sgP1ilm-4G03OpvrRt-6uC3LNsu6bGSgVBapQZK-MufVRTXY5asDlI |url-status=live }}</ref> These efforts were met with mixed reactions from the schools themselves.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=March 24, 1955 |title=Applications for Class of '59 Soar to Record 3,400 Total |url=https://theprince.princeton.edu/princetonperiodicals/cgi-bin/imageserver.pl?oid=Princetonian19550324-01&getpdf=true |journal=[[The Daily Princetonian]] |volume=LXXIX |issue=39 |pages=1 |quote=Questioned on the Admission's Office reaction to Yale University's decision to encourage more Negro applicants, [director of admissions C. William] Edwards commented that Princeton 'is neither discouraging nor encouraging Negro students to come here.' |access-date=July 2, 2023 |archive-date=July 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702224902/https://theprince.princeton.edu/princetonperiodicals/cgi-bin/imageserver.pl?oid=Princetonian19550324-01&getpdf=true |url-status=dead }}</ref> Without a goal for integration shared by the institutions as a collective, each school increased racial diversity at different rates, with Dartmouth having 120 Black undergraduates in the class of 1945 and Princeton having a cumulative total of fewer than 100 Black undergraduates by 1967.<ref name="Bradley-2021" />

The [[V-12 Navy College Training Program]] in 1942 effectively forced all eight Ivy institutions to increase Black student enrollment.<ref name="Bradley-2021"/> At Princeton University, the Black students in this program were the first ever granted bachelor's degrees by the University.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Armstrong |first=April |date=2015-05-27 |title=African Americans and Princeton University |url=https://blogs.princeton.edu/mudd/2015/05/african-americans-and-princeton-university/ |access-date=2022-12-13 |website=Mudd Manuscript Library Blog |language=en-US |archive-date=November 28, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128023849/https://blogs.princeton.edu/mudd/2015/05/african-americans-and-princeton-university/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The 1954 Supreme Court decision in ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' did not require private universities like those in the Ivy League to abide by the ruling.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-09-29 |title=Brown v. Board of Education (1954) |url=https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/brown-v-board-of-education |access-date=2022-12-15 |website=National Archives |language=en |archive-date=December 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215193011/https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/brown-v-board-of-education |url-status=live }}</ref> It wasn't until the Court's 1976 decision in ''[[Runyon v. McCrary]]'' that private institutions became legally prohibited from discriminating on the basis of race.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Runyon v. McCrary, 427 U.S. 160 (1976) |url=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/427/160/ |access-date=2022-12-07 |website=Justia Law |language=en |archive-date=November 29, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129052121/https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/427/160/ |url-status=live }}</ref> By the early 1960s, however, some admissions offices in the Ivy League began to make concerted efforts to increase their number of Black applicants, rolling out initiatives that actively sought Black talent from high schools.<ref name="The Current">{{Cite web |title=Breaking Through a Bastion of Whiteness |url=http://www.columbia-current.org/breaking-through-a-bastion-of-whiteness.html |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Current |language=en |archive-date=December 12, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221212122946/http://www.columbia-current.org/breaking-through-a-bastion-of-whiteness.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Efforts for racial integration at Ivy League institutions relied on the support of student organizations, faculty-led initiatives, and third-party organizations like the National Scholarship Service and Fund for Negro Students<ref name=":0" /> to seek prospective Black applicants.<ref name="The Current" /> These efforts also prompted internal University action, such as the creation of [[History of Cornell University|Cornell's Committee on Special Educational Projects (COSEP)]], an organization aimed to recruit and support Black students.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our History {{!}} Office of Academic Diversity Initiatives |url=https://oadi.cornell.edu/about/our-history |access-date=2022-12-07 |website=oadi.cornell.edu |archive-date=December 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207190949/https://oadi.cornell.edu/about/our-history |url-status=live }}</ref> By 1965, however, Black students still were only 2% of admitted students across all the Ivies.<ref name="Bradley-2021" />

Prior to the 1960s, the majority of Ivy League universities explicitly prohibited the admission of women, instead forming partnerships with nearby women's colleges.<ref name="BestColleges">{{Cite web |title=A History of Women in Higher Education |url=https://www.bestcolleges.com/news/analysis/2021/03/21/history-women-higher-education/ |access-date=2022-12-12 |website=BestColleges |language=en-US |archive-date=June 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606135024/https://www.bestcolleges.com/news/analysis/2021/03/21/history-women-higher-education/ |url-status=live }}</ref> As such, Black women were not able to attend Ivy League universities until they changed their policies. [[Lillian Lincoln|Lillian Lincoln Lambert]] was the first Black woman to receive a degree from Harvard University after graduating with a master's degree from [[Harvard Business School]] in 1969.<ref name="BestColleges" /> Lincoln Lambert was also a founding member of Harvard's African American Student Union, which according to her, actively recruited Black students and created "a space where Black students could find not only support but resources for everything from barber shops that cut Black hair to churches."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Entrepreneur Lillian Lambert on Being the First Black Woman to Graduate from Harvard Business School |url=https://www.sarasotamagazine.com/news-and-profiles/2022/05/lillian-lincoln-lambert-harvard |access-date=2022-12-12 |website=Sarasota Magazine |language=en-US |archive-date=December 12, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221212195244/https://www.sarasotamagazine.com/news-and-profiles/2022/05/lillian-lincoln-lambert-harvard |url-status=live }}</ref>

As Black student populations grew at Ivy League schools, on-campus activism saw an increase during the civil rights movement. In 1969, students in Cornell's Afro-American Society led an armed occupation of [[Willard Straight Hall]] to protest the university's racist policies and “its slow progress in establishing a Black studies program.”<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kendi |first=Ibram |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/795517755 |title=The Black campus movement : Black students and the racial reconstitution of higher education, 1965-1972 |date=2012 |isbn=978-1-137-01650-8 |edition=First |location=New York |oclc=795517755}}</ref><ref name="Bradley-2021" /> In the same year, students associated with Yale's New Left organization, [[Students for a Democratic Society]], worked closely with the New Haven [[Black Panther Party|Black Panthers]] to lead sit-ins and protests that advocated for the admission of more students of color and the establishment of an African American studies department.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Vaz |first1=Megan |date=2022-02-18 |title=Memories of May Day: A look back at Black Panther protests at Yale |url=https://yaledailynews.com/blog/2022/02/18/memories-of-may-day-a-look-back-at-black-panther-protests-at-yale/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=Yale Daily News |language=en |archive-date=December 4, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204195338/https://yaledailynews.com/blog/2022/02/18/memories-of-may-day-a-look-back-at-black-panther-protests-at-yale/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Bradley-2021" /> At Brown University, identity-based student organizations such as the United African People and the African American Society called for an increase to the number of Black faculty and increased attention to the needs of Black students.<ref name="Brown's Slavery & Justice Report, Digital 2nd Edition | Brown University" /> Demonstrations at Harvard and Columbia took the form of occupations and non-violent sit-ins that were often subject to forceful removal by local police called by University administrators.<ref>{{cite web |title=Harvard Students Occupy University Hall |url=https://www.massmoments.org/moment-details/harvard-students-occupy-university-hall.html |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=www.massmoments.org |date=April 11, 2006 |language=en |archive-date=December 4, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204195335/https://www.massmoments.org/moment-details/harvard-students-occupy-university-hall.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Bradley-2021" /> Activism at Dartmouth took a different shape during this time period, as students would use demonstrations that were happening at other Ivies and colleges around the country, to effectively position their demands for progress within the prospect of taking actions similar to those happening elsewhere.

==== 21st century ====

Continuing the trajectory of the late 20th century, the number of Black students on Ivy League campuses has continued to increase in the 21st century. From 2006 to 2018, there was an approximated 50% increase in the admission of Black students into entering classes, growing from 1,110 to 1,663.<ref name="The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education-2018">{{Cite journal |date=January 31, 2018 |title=Black First-Year Students at the Nation's Leading Research Universities |url=https://www.jbhe.com/2018/01/black-first-year-students-at-nations-leading-research-universities/ |journal=The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education |access-date=December 16, 2022 |archive-date=November 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221108010025/https://www.jbhe.com/2018/01/black-first-year-students-at-nations-leading-research-universities/ |url-status=live }}</ref> As of 2018, the Ivy League universities unanimously supported Harvard University's “race-conscious admissions” model.<ref name="Franklin-2018">{{Cite news |last1=Franklin |first1=Delano R. |last2=Zwickel |first2=Samuel W. |date=July 31, 2018 |title=Top Universities Defend Harvard's Race-Conscious Admissions Policies in Court |work=The Harvard Crimson |url=https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2018/7/31/top-universities-defend-harvard/ |access-date=November 7, 2022 |archive-date=November 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221108003017/https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2018/7/31/top-universities-defend-harvard/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Harvard University representatives credited this form of [[Affirmative action in the United States|affirmative action]] as one of the factors increasing campus diversity.<ref name="Franklin-2018" />

In 2014 case ''[[Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action]]'', {{ussc|572|291|2014}} — the Supreme Court upheld [[Michigan Civil Rights Initiative|Michigan's ban]] on affirmative action for public institutions and in 2016 in''[[Fisher v. University of Texas (2016)|Fisher v. University of Texas II]]'', {{ussc|docket=14-981|volume=579|date=2016}} the court upheld the university's limited use of race in admissions decisions because the university showed it had a clear goal of limited scope without other workable race-neutral means to achieve it.
However, in 2023 — ''[[Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College]]'', {{ussc|docket=20-1199|volume=600|year=2023}} the [[United States Supreme Court]] overruled the decades old decisions''Regents of University of California v. Bakke'' and ''Grutter v. Bollinger'' and other cases mentioned above in this paragraph but disallowing non-individualized racial preferences in admissions for civilian universities. 
In essence, the court interpreted the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]] as not permitting Harvard's “race-conscious admissions” as the court decision now forbids the consideration of race in higher education admissions.

Institutions in favor of Harvard's model argue that in addition to academic excellence they also aim to form a diverse student body, while individuals that argue against the model state that it is discriminatory against certain applicants.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Totenberg |first=Nina |date=October 31, 2022 |title=Can race play a role in college admissions? The Supreme Court hears the arguments |language=en |work=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/10/31/1131789230/supreme-court-affirmative-action-harvard-unc |access-date=2022-11-08}}</ref>

The growing Black student population in Ivy League universities in the early 2000s was accompanied by an increase in the number of Black faculty at these institutions, though rates of change among faculty have been slower and inconsistent. In 2005, 588– or about 3.9%– of the Ivies' 14,831 full-time faculty members were Black.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Black Faculty at the Nation's Highest-Ranked Colleges and Universities |url=https://www.jbhe.com/features/48_blackfaculty_colleges-uni.html |access-date=2022-11-08 |website=www.jbhe.com |archive-date=November 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221108003016/https://www.jbhe.com/features/48_blackfaculty_colleges-uni.html |url-status=live }}</ref> This proportion decreased to 3.4% in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lurie |first=Julia |title=Just how few college professors aren't white men? Check out these charts. |url=https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2015/11/university-faculty-diversity-race-gender-charts/ |access-date=2022-12-01 |website=Mother Jones |language=en-US |archive-date=December 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221211155356/https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2015/11/university-faculty-diversity-race-gender-charts/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Notably, in 2001, [[Ruth Simmons|Ruth J. Simmons]] became the president of Brown University, making her the first and only Black president of an Ivy League institution.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-09-22 |title=Key Events in Black Higher Education |url=https://www.jbhe.com/chronology/ |access-date=2022-11-08 |website=The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education |archive-date=April 1, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401010424/https://www.jbhe.com/chronology/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The 21st century saw the continuation of demonstrations by Ivy League students revolving around race. Many of these demonstrations have sought to continue the work of their 20th century predecessors by advocating for increased admission and support of Black students. In light of the ''[[Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College]]'' Supreme Court case, students from Yale and Harvard joined other universities in protesting in defense of race-conscious admissions policies.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seth |first=Anika |date=2022-10-28 |title=Yale student delegation heads to D.C. to protest in defense of affirmative action |url=https://yaledailynews.com/blog/2022/10/27/yale-student-delegation-in-d-c-to-protest-in-defense-of-affirmative-action/ |access-date=2022-12-07 |website=Yale Daily News |language=en |archive-date=December 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207175229/https://yaledailynews.com/blog/2022/10/27/yale-student-delegation-in-d-c-to-protest-in-defense-of-affirmative-action/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lu |first1=Vivi E. |last2=Teichholtz |first2=Leah J. |date=2022-10-28 |title=Meet the Harvard Students Rallying to Save Affirmative Action |url=https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2022/10/28/activists-support-affirmative-action-dc-rally/ |access-date=2022-12-07 |website=www.thecrimson.com |archive-date=November 18, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118223927/https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2022/10/28/activists-support-affirmative-action-dc-rally/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Likewise, Black students from Ivy League institutions continue to protest for the betterment of Black students' lives on campus and beyond. Following [[Shooting of Michael Brown|Michael Brown's death]] in 2014, students across the Ivies formed the Black Ivy Coalition, which included members from all eight institutions and aimed to combat anti-Black racism.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wu |first=Huizhong |title=After Ferguson, black Ivy League students form civil rights coalition |url=https://www.thedp.com/article/2014/09/black-ivy-coalition |access-date=2022-12-07 |website=www.thedp.com |language=en-us |archive-date=December 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207175234/https://www.thedp.com/article/2014/09/black-ivy-coalition |url-status=live }}</ref> Individual Ivy League universities also formed their own advocacy organizations and movements as a direct response to instances of anti-Black violence. After the murder of Michael Brown, Princeton University students formed the Black Justice League, which in 2015, occupied [[Nassau Hall]] and presented a list of demands to university administrators.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Li |first1=Ellen |last2=Farah |first2=Omar |date=2020-07-30 |title=PART I {{!}} 'Resurfacing History': A Look Back at the Black Justice League's Campus Activism |url=https://aas.princeton.edu/news/part-i-resurfacing-history-look-back-black-justice-leagues-campus-activism |access-date=2022-12-07 |website=Princeton University Department of African American Studies |language=en |archive-date=December 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207175239/https://aas.princeton.edu/news/part-i-resurfacing-history-look-back-black-justice-leagues-campus-activism |url-status=live }}</ref> Similarly, in 2017, Cornell students made demands to their administration protesting the assault of a Black student. Led by Black Students United, the demands included banning the [[Psi Upsilon]] fraternity for hate crimes, implementing [[implicit bias training]], and introducing policies to increase the number of Black students at the university.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Devlin |first=Tessie |title=WATCH: Black Students United delivers demands to Cornell President {{!}} The Ithacan |url=https://theithacan.org/news/breaking-black-students-united-deliver-list-of-demands-to-cornell-president/ |access-date=2022-12-07 |website=theithacan.org |language=en |archive-date=December 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207175228/https://theithacan.org/news/breaking-black-students-united-deliver-list-of-demands-to-cornell-president/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Student demonstrations have also focused on sparking change beyond Ivy League campuses. Following the [[Black Lives Matter]] protests in 2020, Harvard's Black Law Students Association, beyond calling for more Black faculty, [[critical race theory]] curriculum, and protection for student protestors, also called on the university to divest from prisons and denounce state-sanctioned violence.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-05 |title=Harvard's Black Law Student Association's Letter to the Administration Regarding Black Lives |url=https://orgs.law.harvard.edu/blsa/2020/06/05/harvards-black-law-student-associations-letter-to-the-administration-regarding-black-lives/ |access-date=2022-12-07 |website=Harvard Black Law Students Association |language=en-US |archive-date=December 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207175233/https://orgs.law.harvard.edu/blsa/2020/06/05/harvards-black-law-student-associations-letter-to-the-administration-regarding-black-lives/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In response to racially charged incidents across the country and prompting from student activists, Ivy League universities have removed and renamed campus landmarks. In response to the [[Black Lives Matter|2016 Black Lives Matter protests]], Cornell renamed [[Cornell Botanic Gardens|their botanical gardens]], previously called the "Cornell Plantations," to the "Cornell Botanical Gardens."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Almendarez |first=Jolene |date=2016-10-31 |title=Cornell Plantations no more! University renames site 'Cornell Botanic Gardens' |url=http://ithacavoice.com/2016/10/cornell-plantations-no-university-renames-site-cornell-botanic-gardens/ |access-date=2022-12-15 |website=The Ithaca Voice |language=en-US |archive-date=December 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215180832/https://ithacavoice.com/2016/10/cornell-plantations-no-university-renames-site-cornell-botanic-gardens/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2018, Brown renamed one of its largest academic and administrative buildings after its first black graduates, [[Inman E. Page]] and Ethel Tremaine Robinson.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hyde-Keller |first1=O'rya |title=Newly renamed Page-Robinson Hall will honor Brown's first black graduates |url=https://www.brown.edu/news/2018-09-22/page-robinson |access-date=5 April 2023 |publisher=Brown University |date=22 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203051203/https://www.brown.edu/news/2018-09-22/page-robinson |archive-date=3 December 2022 |location=Providence, Rhode Island |quote=To celebrate the legacies of two pioneering black graduates, Brown University will rename its J. Walter Wilson Building in recognition of Inman Edward Page and Ethel Tremaine Robinson.}}</ref> In response to the [[murder of George Floyd]] in 2020, Princeton University removed [[Woodrow Wilson|Woodrow Wilson's]] name from a residential college and the [[Princeton School of Public and International Affairs|School of Public and International Affairs]] because of his “racist thinking and policies.”<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-27 |title=Princeton Renames Wilson School and Residential College, Citing Former President's Racism |url=https://paw.princeton.edu/article/princeton-renames-wilson-school-and-residential-college-citing-former-presidents-racism |access-date=2022-12-16 |website=Princeton Alumni Weekly |language=en |archive-date=December 16, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221216013739/https://paw.princeton.edu/article/princeton-renames-wilson-school-and-residential-college-citing-former-presidents-racism |url-status=live }}</ref>