Editing Hafez al-Assad (section)

====Institutionalization====
[[File:The first inauguration of President Hafez al-Assad in Parliament - March 1971.jpg|thumb|alt=Large group of men sitting in rows|Assad's first inauguration as president in the People's Council, March 1971. L–R: Assad, Abdullah al-Ahmar, Prime Minister [[Abdul Rahman Khleifawi]], Assistant Regional Secretary Mohamad Jaber Bajbouj, Foreign Minister Abdul Halim Khaddam and People's Council Speaker Fihmi al-Yusufi. In the third civilian row are Defense Minister Mustafa Tlass (MP in the 1971 Parliament) and Air Force Commander Naji Jamil. Behind Tlass is Rifaat al-Assad, Assad's younger brother. On the far right in the fourth row is future vice president [[Zuhair Masharqa]], and behind Abdullah al-Ahmar is Deputy Prime Minister [[Mohammad Haidar]].]]
Assad turned the presidency, which had been known simply as "head of state" under Jadid, into a position of power during his rule.{{sfn|Hinnebusch|2001|p=63}} In many ways, the presidential authority replaced the Ba'ath Party's failed experiment with organised, military [[Leninism]];{{sfn|Hinnebusch|2001|p=63}} Syria became a hybrid of Leninism and Gaullist constitutionalism.{{sfn|Hinnebusch|2001|p=63}} According to Raymond Hinnebusch, "as the president became the main source of initiative in the government, his personality, values, strengths, and weaknesses became decisive for its direction and stability. Arguably Assad's leadership gave the government an enhanced combination of consistency and flexibility which it hitherto lacked."{{sfn|Hinnebusch|2001|p=63}}

Assad institutionalised a system where he had the final say, which weakened the powers of the collegial institutions of the state and party.{{sfn|Hinnebusch|2001|p=65}} As fidelity to the leader replaced ideological conviction later in his presidency, corruption became widespread.{{sfn|Hinnebusch|2001|p=65}} The state-sponsored [[cult of personality]] became pervasive; as Assad's authority strengthened at his colleagues' expense, he became the sole symbol of the government.{{sfn|Reich|1990|p=57}}{{sfn|Hinnebusch|2001|p=65}}

While Assad did not rule alone, he increasingly had the last word;{{sfn|Hinnebusch|2001|p=69}} those with whom he worked eventually became lieutenants, rather than colleagues.{{sfn|Hinnebusch|2001|p=69}} None of the political elite would question a decision of his, and those who did were dismissed.{{sfn|Hinnebusch|2001|p=69}} General Naji Jamil is an example, being dismissed after he disagreed with Assad's handling of the [[Islamist uprising in Syria|Islamist uprising]].{{sfn|Hinnebusch|2001|p=69}} The two highest decision-making bodies were the Regional Command and the National Command, both part of the Ba'ath Party.{{sfn|Hinnebusch|2001|p=72}} Joint sessions of these bodies resembled [[politburo]]s in [[socialist states|socialist states which espoused communism]].{{sfn|Hinnebusch|2001|p=72}} Assad headed the National Command and the Regional Command as Secretary General and Regional Secretary, respectively.{{sfn|Hinnebusch|2001|p=72}} The Regional Command was the highest decision-making body in Syria, appointing the president and (through him) the cabinet.{{sfn|Hinnebusch|2001|p=72}} As presidential authority strengthened, the power of the Regional Command and its members evaporated.{{sfn|Hinnebusch|2001|p=74}} The Regional and National Commands were nominally responsible to the Regional Congress and the National Congress—with the National Congress the ''de jure'' superior body—but the Regional Congress had ''de facto'' authority.{{sfn|Hinnebusch|2001|pp=72–73}} The National Congress, which included delegates from Ba'athist Regional Branches in other countries, has been compared to the [[Comintern]].{{sfn|Hinnebusch|2001|p=73}} It functioned as a session of the Regional Congress focusing on Syria's [[foreign policy]] and party ideology.{{sfn|Hinnebusch|2001|p=73}} The Regional Congress had limited accountability until the 1985 Eighth Regional Congress, the last under Assad.{{sfn|Hinnebusch|2001|p=73}} In 1985, responsibility for leadership accountability was transferred from the Regional Congress to the weaker [[National Progressive Front (Syria)|National Progressive Front]].{{sfn|Hinnebusch|2001|p=74}}