Editing Gladiator (section)

==Schools and training==
{{See also|History of physical training and fitness}}

The earliest named gladiator school (singular: ''ludus''; plural: ''ludi'') is that of Aurelius Scaurus at Capua. He was ''lanista'' of the gladiators employed by the state circa 105 BC to instruct the legions and simultaneously entertain the public.<ref>{{harvnb|Kyle|2007|p=238}}.</ref> Few other ''lanistae'' are known by name: they headed their ''familia gladiatoria'', and had lawful power over life and death of every family member, including ''servi poenae'', ''auctorati'' and ancillaries. Socially, they were ''infames'', on a footing with pimps and butchers and despised as price gougers.<ref>{{harvnb|Futrell|2006|pp=85, 149}}; {{harvnb|Auguet|1994|p=31}}.</ref> No such stigma was attached to a gladiator owner (''munerarius'' or ''editor'') of good family, high status and independent means;<ref>Ulpian. ''Edict'', Book 6; {{harvnb|Futrell|2006|pp=137–138}}. Futrell is citing ''Digest'', 3.1.1.6.</ref> [[Cicero]] congratulated his friend Atticus on buying a splendid troop—if he rented them out, he might recover their entire cost after two performances.<ref>Cicero. ''Letters'', 10.</ref>

The [[Third Servile War|Spartacus revolt]] had originated in a gladiator school privately owned by [[Lentulus Batiatus]], and had been suppressed only after a protracted series of costly, sometimes disastrous campaigns by regular Roman troops. In the late Republican era, a fear of similar uprisings, the usefulness of gladiator schools in creating private armies, and the exploitation of ''munera'' for political gain led to increased restrictions on gladiator school ownership, siting and organisation. By [[Domitian]]'s time, many had been more or less absorbed by the State, including those at [[Pergamum]], [[Alexandria]], [[Praeneste]] and Capua.<ref>{{harvnb|Kyle|2007|pp=285–287, 312}}. This had probably began under Augustus.</ref> The city of Rome itself had four; the ''[[Ludus Magnus]]'' (the largest and most important, housing up to about 2,000 gladiators), ''[[Ludus Dacicus]]'', ''Ludus Gallicus'', and the ''Ludus Matutinus'', which trained ''bestiarii''.<ref name="Kyle 1998 80" />

In the Imperial era, volunteers required a magistrate's permission to join a school as ''auctorati''.<ref>{{harvnb|Futrell|2006|p=103}}. Futrell is citing Petronius's ''Satyricon'', 45.133.</ref> If this was granted, the school's physician assessed their suitability. Their contract (''auctoramentum'') stipulated how often they were to perform, their fighting style and earnings. A condemned bankrupt or debtor accepted as novice (''novicius'') could negotiate with his ''lanista'' or ''editor'' for the partial or complete payment of his debt. Faced with runaway re-enlistment fees for skilled ''auctorati'', Marcus Aurelius set their upper limit at 12,000 ''[[sesterces]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Futrell|2006|p=133}}. See also Tiberius's inducement to re-enlist.</ref>

All prospective gladiators, whether volunteer or condemned, were bound to service by a sacred oath (''[[Glossary of ancient Roman religion#sacramentum|sacramentum]]'').<ref name="autogenerated1">Petronius. ''Satyricon'', 117: "He vows to endure to be burned, to be bound, to be beaten, and to be killed by the sword."</ref> Novices (''novicii'') trained under teachers of particular fighting styles, probably retired gladiators.<ref>{{harvnb|Futrell|2006|p=138}}.</ref> They could ascend through a hierarchy of grades (singular: ''palus'') in which ''primus palus'' was the highest.<ref>''palus'': named after the training poles, 6 Roman feet high, erected in the training arena.</ref> Lethal weapons were prohibited in the schools—weighted, blunt wooden versions were probably used. Fighting styles were probably learned through constant rehearsal as choreographed "numbers". An elegant, economical style was preferred. Training included preparation for a stoical, unflinching death. Successful training required intense commitment.<ref>{{harvnb|Futrell|2006|p=137}}. Futrell is citing Quintilian's ''Oratorical Institute'', 5.13.54; {{harvnb|Futrell|2006|p=140}}. Futrell is citing Cicero's ''Tuscullan Disputations'', 2.17; {{harvnb|Futrell|2006|p=139}}. Futrell is citing Epictetus's ''Discourse'', 3.15.</ref>

Those condemned ''ad ludum'' were probably [[Human branding|branded]] or marked with a [[History of tattooing|tattoo]] (''stigma'', plural ''stigmata'') on the face, legs and/or hands. These ''stigmata'' may have been text—slaves were sometimes thus marked on the forehead until Constantine banned the use of facial stigmata in 325 AD. Soldiers were routinely marked on the hand.<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|1987|pp=139–155}}. Facial ''stigmata'' represented extreme social degradation.</ref>

Gladiators were typically accommodated in cells, arranged in barrack formation around a central practice arena. [[Juvenal]] describes the segregation of gladiators according to type and status, suggestive of rigid hierarchies within the schools: "even the lowest scum of the arena observe this rule; even in prison they're separate". <!-- In the following sentence, phrases in quote-marks are verbatim from English-language source. Please do not remove or substitute for "fag", unless you're prepared to find and cite another translation of the Juvenal passage from a reliable source  -->''Retiarii'' were kept away from ''damnati'', and "fag targeteers" from "armoured heavies". As most ''ordinarii'' at games were from the same school, this kept potential opponents separate and safe from each other until the lawful ''munus''.<ref>{{harvnb|Futrell|2006|p=142}}. Futrell is citing Juvenal's ''Satire'', 6 [Oxford Fragment 7.13], in the translation of [[Peter Green (historian)|Peter Green]].</ref> Discipline could be extreme, even lethal.<ref>{{harvnb|Welch|2007|p=17}}. The burning alive of a soldier who refused to become an ''auctoratus'' at a Spanish school in 43 BC is exceptional only because he was a citizen, technically exempt from such compulsion and penalty.</ref> Remains of a Pompeian ''ludus'' site attest to developments in supply, demand and discipline; in its earliest phase, the building could accommodate 15–20 gladiators. Its replacement could have housed about 100 and included a very small cell, probably for lesser punishments and so low that standing was impossible.<ref>{{harvnb|Futrell|2006|pp=148–149}}.</ref>

===Diet and medical care===
[[File:Gladiadores después del combate, por José Moreno Carbonero.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|''Gladiators after the fight'', [[José Moreno Carbonero]] (1882)]]
Despite the harsh discipline, gladiators represented a substantial investment for their ''lanista'' and were otherwise well fed and cared for. Their daily, high-energy, [[vegetarian]] diet consisted of [[barley]], boiled [[beans]], [[oatmeal]], ash and [[dried fruit]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Longo|first1=Umile Giuseppe|last2=Spiezia|first2=Filippo|last3=Maffulli|first3=Nicola|last4=Denaro|first4=Vincenzo|date=1 December 2008|title=The Best Athletes in Ancient Rome were Vegetarian!|journal=Journal of Sports Science & Medicine|volume=7|issue=4|pages=565|issn=1303-2968|pmc=3761927|pmid=24137094}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kanz|first1=Fabian|last2=Risser|first2=Daniele U.|last3=Grossschmidt|first3=Karl|last4=Moghaddam|first4=Negahnaz|last5=Lösch|first5=Sandra|date=15 October 2014|title=Stable Isotope and Trace Element Studies on Gladiators and Contemporary Romans from Ephesus (Turkey, 2nd and 3rd Ct. AD) – Implications for Differences in Diet|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=9|issue=10|pages=e110489|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0110489|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4198250|pmid=25333366|bibcode=2014PLoSO...9k0489L|doi-access=free}}</ref> Gladiators were sometimes called ''hordearii'' (eaters of barley). Romans considered barley inferior to [[wheat]]—a punishment for [[legionaries]] replaced their wheat ration with it—but it was thought to strengthen the body.<ref>{{cite web|last=Follain|first=John|title=The dying game: How did the gladiators really live?|work=Times Online|date=15 December 2002|access-date=24 March 2009|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/article1069977.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429085905/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/article1069977.ece|archive-date=29 April 2011}}</ref> Regular massage and high quality medical care helped mitigate an otherwise very severe training regimen. Part of [[Galen]]'s medical training was at a gladiator school in Pergamum where he saw (and would later criticise) the training, diet, and long-term health prospects of the gladiators.<ref>{{harvnb|Futrell|2006|pp=141–142}}; {{harvnb|Carter|2004|pp=41–68}}.</ref>